How abduction, child marriage, religious pressure and failures of legal protection threaten vulnerable girls in Pakistan, Afghanistan and parts of the Middle East.

BEYOND THE LINES | SPECIAL REPORT

Series: Faith, Power & Persecution
Category: Human Rights | Religious Freedom | Middle East & South Asia

Estimated reading time: 25–35 minutes for the complete report.

The Story in Brief

Across parts of South Asia and the Middle East, girls face the threat of child marriage, coercion and, in some documented cases, abduction followed by religious conversion and marriage. Pakistan has attracted particular international concern over allegations involving Christian and Hindu girls, some of whom are reported to have been taken from their families and married to older Muslim men.

For affected families, the struggle frequently extends into police stations and courtrooms, where questions of age, consent, religious identity and the validity of marriage documents can determine a child's future.

The problem is neither uniform across countries nor representative of Muslim communities as a whole. Yet documented failures of protection raise serious questions about religious authority, discrimination, institutional accountability and the rights of children.

This special report examines the evidence, the legal controversies and the human consequences.

Introduction

When Childhood, Religion and the Law Collide

A girl disappears from her family home.

Her parents search for her, contact relatives and eventually approach the police. Days later, they discover that she has reportedly converted to Islam and married an adult man.

The family insists that their daughter is underage. They allege that she was abducted and forced into the marriage. The man maintains that she converted voluntarily and agreed to become his wife.

A legal dispute begins.

The authorities must now determine whether the girl was abducted, whether she is legally old enough to marry, whether her religious conversion was voluntary and whether any statement she makes can be considered free from coercion.

For the family, the questions are immediate and deeply personal: Where is their daughter? Is she safe? Can they speak to her privately? Will she be allowed to return home?

For the courts, the case may involve conflicting identity documents, competing interpretations of marriage law, religious claims and allegations of criminal conduct.

For the girl, the consequences may last a lifetime.

This scenario reflects recurring elements of documented allegations in Pakistan. It is a composite illustration, not the account of one identified victim. The facts and legal outcomes differ significantly between individual cases.

Nevertheless, reports by United Nations experts, Pakistani human rights institutions and international religious freedom organisations have repeatedly raised concerns about cases involving alleged abduction, forced religious conversion and marriage.

These concerns are particularly serious when the individuals involved are children.

A Problem That Extends Beyond Marriage

Child marriage is not simply a question of two people entering a relationship at an early age.

It can involve unequal power, interrupted education, economic dependency, early pregnancy, domestic violence and the loss of personal autonomy.

When a child marriage is accompanied by alleged abduction or forced religious conversion, additional questions arise.

Can a child genuinely consent to marriage under circumstances of intimidation or dependency?

Can a declaration of religious belief be regarded as voluntary when it follows an alleged kidnapping?

What happens when the girl's family belongs to a religious minority and the alleged perpetrator belongs to the majority community?

And how should the justice system respond when religious arguments are invoked to defend a marriage that may violate child-protection legislation?

These are not merely theological questions. They concern criminal justice, constitutional protections, equality before the law and the obligations of states to protect children.

The Particular Vulnerability of Religious Minorities

Pakistan provides one of the clearest settings in which to examine these overlapping issues.

The country is overwhelmingly Muslim, while Christians and Hindus constitute comparatively small religious minorities.

Both communities have longstanding histories in the region. Yet members of these minorities can face social discrimination, economic disadvantage and difficulties obtaining effective legal protection.

In cases involving alleged forced conversion and marriage, these inequalities can become especially significant.

A poor Christian or Hindu family may lack the financial resources to secure legal representation. Parents may encounter difficulties registering a criminal complaint, challenging marriage documents or obtaining independent access to their daughter.

Religious identity can further complicate the dispute when conversion is presented as evidence of the girl's voluntary separation from her family.

However, religious conversion and consent to marriage are separate legal and factual questions. Evidence of one cannot automatically establish the other.

Nor does an allegation of conversion establish that a marriage was lawful.

The girl's age, the circumstances of her departure, the conduct of the adults involved and the applicable legislation must all be examined independently.

Religion, Culture and Responsibility

The relationship between religion and child marriage requires careful examination.

Islamic legal traditions have historically contained differing interpretations of marriage eligibility, maturity and consent. Contemporary Muslim-majority countries have adopted different statutory marriage ages and legal safeguards.

Religious scholars, lawmakers and civil society organisations continue to debate how historical jurisprudence should be understood in relation to modern child-protection standards.

Some individuals invoke religious arguments to justify marriages involving minors. Others, including Muslim reformers and child-rights advocates, argue that coercion and harmful child marriage are incompatible with the ethical principles of their faith.

These distinctions matter.

It would be inaccurate to attribute every child marriage in the region to Islam. Child marriage also occurs in non-Muslim communities and is associated with poverty, gender inequality, insecurity and longstanding social customs.

It would be equally misleading to ignore situations in which religious authority, interpretations of religious law or discrimination against non-Muslims influence the treatment of girls and their families.

The purpose of this investigation is not to judge an entire religious population.

It is to examine how power is exercised, how coercion is justified and why vulnerable children sometimes struggle to obtain protection.

Beyond Pakistan

Although Pakistan will form the central case study of this report, similar questions about child marriage, coercion and women's rights arise elsewhere.

In Afghanistan, restrictions imposed by the Taliban have profoundly affected women's and girls' access to education, employment, freedom of movement and public life. These restrictions form part of the wider environment in which girls' autonomy and protection must be examined.

In Syria, years of conflict, displacement and economic insecurity have increased vulnerabilities associated with child marriage, particularly among displaced populations.

In Iraq, the history of violence against Yazidi women and girls under the Islamic State demonstrates how religious persecution, abduction, forced conversion and sexual enslavement can intersect in extreme circumstances.

These situations are not identical.

The systematic atrocities committed by Islamic State against Yazidis must not be treated as legally or historically equivalent to every case of child marriage or alleged forced conversion in Pakistan.

Each country has its own laws, social structures, religious institutions and patterns of abuse.

Understanding those differences is essential to identifying both the causes of harm and the measures required to prevent it.

The Question at the Centre of This Investigation

Behind the legal terminology and political controversy lies a fundamental question:

What protection does a girl have when the adults, institutions or authorities around her fail to respect her right to make decisions about her own future?

International human rights standards recognise children's rights to protection from exploitation, violence and harmful practices.

They also recognise freedom of thought, conscience and religion.

Marriage requires genuine and free consent, while children are entitled to safeguards appropriate to their age and vulnerability.

When these principles collide with discriminatory practices, disputed religious interpretations or institutional failures, the consequences can be devastating.

This investigation begins in Pakistan, where the intersection of religious identity, marriage law and allegations of forced conversion has generated years of controversy.

Chapter 1

A Childhood Taken Away: Understanding the Reality Behind Forced Marriage and Conversion

The term forced marriage describes a marriage entered into without the free and full consent of one or both parties.

It is distinct from an arranged marriage, in which families may help identify a prospective spouse but the individuals concerned retain the freedom to accept or refuse.

The distinction is essential.

Family involvement does not automatically make a marriage coercive. Conversely, a marriage ceremony or a signed document does not necessarily establish that consent was freely given.

Pressure can take many forms.

It may involve physical violence, threats, confinement, intimidation, emotional manipulation or the exploitation of financial dependency.

In some cases, the person being pressured may not openly resist because resistance could expose them to further harm.

For children, the imbalance of power is especially pronounced.

An adult may control a child's movements, access to communication, financial resources or ability to seek assistance.

A child may also lack the knowledge or practical independence required to challenge the situation.

Child Marriage and Forced Marriage: An Important Distinction

International child-protection organisations generally define child marriage as a formal marriage or informal union involving at least one person under the age of eighteen.

Not every child marriage involves an abduction or an explicitly documented threat.

Some are arranged by families. Others are connected to poverty, insecurity, social expectations or attempts to protect family reputation.

Nevertheless, child marriage is widely recognised as a harmful practice because children are particularly vulnerable to unequal power relationships and may be unable to exercise meaningful, informed and independent choice.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child establishes a broad framework for protecting children from violence, exploitation and practices harmful to their health and development.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women also addresses child marriage and requires states to take measures to eliminate discrimination in marriage and family relations.

Together, these international standards provide an important basis for assessing national laws and government responsibilities.

The question is not simply whether a marriage ceremony took place.

It is whether the individuals involved possessed the legal capacity and genuine freedom to enter that marriage.

When Abduction Becomes Part of the Allegation

Cases involving alleged abduction present additional difficulties.

Families may report that a girl was taken from her home, workplace, school or neighbourhood.

Later, authorities may be presented with documents indicating that she has married and converted to another religion.

The accused individual may deny the kidnapping allegation and argue that the girl left voluntarily.

The existence of competing accounts makes an independent investigation essential.

Investigators must establish the girl's age, the circumstances of her departure, her subsequent movements and whether she was subjected to threats, confinement or other forms of coercion.

They must also determine whether any documents were falsified or obtained improperly.

A marriage certificate cannot, by itself, resolve an allegation of kidnapping.

Likewise, an allegation by a family does not automatically establish that a crime occurred.

The responsibility of the justice system is to investigate the evidence impartially while ensuring the safety and rights of the person at the centre of the dispute.

When that person is a minor, child-protection obligations become particularly important.

The Role of Religious Conversion

Religious conversion introduces another dimension.

In some documented Pakistani cases, allegations of abduction have been followed by claims that a Christian or Hindu girl converted to Islam before marrying a Muslim man.

Conversion may be presented as a personal religious decision.

However, the circumstances surrounding the declaration require careful scrutiny when the individual is underage, missing from her family or potentially subject to intimidation.

Freedom of religion includes the right to adopt, change or reject a belief.

It also requires freedom from coercion that would impair that choice.

A declaration of faith made under threat cannot be regarded in the same way as a freely chosen religious commitment.

The legal question becomes particularly difficult when a religious conversion is used to support the validity of a disputed marriage.

Courts may need to consider whether the declaration was voluntary, whether the individual understood its implications and whether the applicable law recognises the marriage.

Importantly, the validity of a religious conversion does not automatically determine the validity of a marriage.

A minor's age and the protections established by child-marriage legislation remain relevant.

Why Families May Struggle to Obtain Protection

For parents seeking the return of a missing daughter, the first challenge is often obtaining an effective police response.

In Pakistan, human rights organisations have documented concerns about delayed investigations, difficulties registering complaints and inadequate protection for individuals alleging forced conversion or marriage.

Such failures can have serious consequences.

A delay may allow an alleged perpetrator to move the girl to another location, restrict communication or obtain documents that complicate subsequent proceedings.

Families with limited financial resources may struggle to retain lawyers or travel to distant courts.

Where religious minorities experience discrimination, mistrust of local authorities may further discourage families from seeking assistance.

The outcome may depend not only on the legal merits of the case but also on whether the family can access functioning institutions.

This creates a fundamental problem of equality before the law.

A justice system cannot provide meaningful protection if the ability to secure an investigation depends on wealth, religious identity or political influence.

The Problem of Age Verification

Age disputes are among the most consequential issues in cases involving alleged child marriage.

A family may produce a birth certificate or school record indicating that a girl is fourteen or fifteen.

The opposing party may submit marriage documents identifying her as eighteen or older.

Such discrepancies require careful examination.

Authorities may need to assess the reliability of birth registrations, educational records, identity documents and other evidence.

Medical age assessments may sometimes be considered, but they have limitations and cannot always determine an individual's precise chronological age.

An inaccurate age determination can alter the legal outcome of a case.

If a girl is incorrectly classified as an adult, she may lose protections specifically designed for children.

For this reason, reliable civil registration and consistent judicial standards are essential.

When Consent Is Questioned in Court

One of the most difficult situations arises when a girl tells a court that she married voluntarily while her family alleges coercion.

Her statement must be taken seriously.

However, courts must also consider the circumstances in which it was made.

Was she able to speak privately?

Was she separated from the person accused of abducting her?

Did she have access to independent legal advice?

Was she informed of her rights?

Could she safely refuse the marriage or request protection?

These questions are especially important when the girl is a minor.

A statement cannot be assessed in isolation from the possibility of intimidation, dependency or fear.

At the same time, judges must avoid automatically assuming that every young woman who disagrees with her family is acting under coercion.

Adult women possess the right to make independent decisions about marriage and religion, even when their families object.

The challenge is to distinguish genuine personal autonomy from circumstances in which apparent consent conceals exploitation.

The Consequences for the Girl

The consequences of forced marriage can extend far beyond the wedding ceremony.

Girls who marry early face increased risks of interrupted education, restricted economic opportunities and dependence on their spouses.

Early pregnancy can present serious health risks, particularly where access to reproductive healthcare is limited.

Coercive relationships may also involve domestic violence, isolation and restrictions on contact with relatives.

When a girl has been separated from her family through alleged abduction, the psychological consequences may be particularly severe.

Fear, uncertainty and loss of social support can complicate her ability to seek assistance.

If religious conversion is also involved, she may face additional pressure concerning her identity, community relationships and future choices.

These experiences cannot be reduced to a dispute between two families or religious communities.

They concern the physical safety, autonomy and future of an individual child.

A Failure of Protection, Not an Inevitable Tradition

It is sometimes suggested that harmful marriages persist simply because they are part of local culture or religious tradition.

Such explanations are incomplete.

Traditions evolve, and legal systems can establish safeguards against exploitation.

Governments can enforce minimum marriage ages, investigate abduction allegations, provide independent protection for minors and prosecute those responsible for coercion.

Religious leaders can challenge harmful practices within their communities.

Schools and civil society organisations can help families understand children's rights and the consequences of early marriage.

Most importantly, authorities can ensure that a child's safety does not depend on the religion, wealth or social standing of her family.

The persistence of abuse is therefore not merely a cultural question.

It is also a question of political responsibility and institutional accountability.

The Wider Human Rights Question

Forced marriage and forced religious conversion raise fundamental questions about freedom.

Who has the authority to decide whom a girl marries?

Who determines her religious identity?

Can a child refuse the expectations imposed by adults?

And what happens when institutions responsible for protecting her fail to intervene?

The answers reveal much about the relationship between individual rights and established power structures.

Religious freedom cannot be meaningful if belief is imposed through intimidation.

Marriage cannot be regarded as a free union if one party lacks the ability to refuse.

And child protection cannot be effective if the authorities overlook coercion because of the status or religious identity of the people involved.

These principles apply regardless of whether the victim is Muslim, Christian, Hindu or belongs to another community.

The central issue is not the religion a girl is expected to follow, but whether she is free from coercion and protected by the law.

Chapter 2

Pakistan: A Crisis for Religious Minorities

Pakistan was established in 1947 as a homeland for Muslims of the Indian subcontinent. Its founding history, constitutional development and religious identity continue to shape the relationship between the Muslim majority and the country's religious minorities.

Today, Pakistan is home to more than 240 million people. Muslims constitute the overwhelming majority, while Christians, Hindus, Ahmadis, Sikhs and other communities represent smaller sections of the population.

These minorities have contributed to Pakistan's cultural, economic and social development for generations. Yet their position within society remains complicated by religious discrimination, economic inequality, social exclusion and, in some circumstances, inadequate legal protection.

Among the most troubling concerns are allegations involving the abduction, forced conversion and marriage of girls from Christian and Hindu families.

Human rights organisations have documented cases in which families reported that their daughters had disappeared, only to discover that the girls had subsequently been presented as converts to Islam and wives of Muslim men.

Some cases involve minors. Others concern adult women whose families dispute whether their decisions were voluntary.

The distinction matters. Adult women have the right to choose their religion and spouse independently of their families. Where a child is involved, however, the state has additional obligations to protect her from exploitation and harmful practices.

For vulnerable families, establishing what happened can become a prolonged struggle involving police investigations, religious authorities, disputed documents and court proceedings.

The controversy raises a fundamental question about Pakistan's justice system: can religious minorities rely on equal protection when allegations of coercion involve members of the religious majority?

A Country Shaped by Religion and Political Identity

Religion has occupied a central place in Pakistan's political development since independence.

The country's founder, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, spoke in August 1947 about religious freedom and the principle that citizens should be able to worship without discrimination.

However, the relationship between religious identity and citizenship evolved considerably in the decades that followed.

Pakistan's constitutional framework identifies Islam as the state religion while also providing protections for religious freedom and equality before the law.

Article 20 of the Constitution protects the right to profess, practise and propagate religion, subject to law, public order and morality.

Article 25 establishes equality before the law and equal protection of the law.

Article 36 directs the state to safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of minorities.

These provisions create an important constitutional foundation for minority protection.

Yet the existence of constitutional rights does not automatically guarantee their effective implementation.

Religious identity can influence social standing, employment opportunities, political representation and access to institutions.

In some communities, minority families experience discrimination that extends beyond individual prejudice and becomes embedded in economic and social relationships.

This broader environment is important when examining allegations of forced marriage and religious conversion.

A family already facing poverty, limited education and discrimination may be less able to challenge an influential individual or pursue a complicated legal case.

Christian Communities and Social Vulnerability

Christian communities have existed in the territory of modern Pakistan for generations, with significant populations in Punjab and urban centres such as Lahore, Faisalabad and Karachi.

They include families whose religious identities developed during the colonial period as well as communities with longer regional histories.

Many Pakistani Christians work in education, healthcare, business, public services and other professions.

However, sections of the Christian population experience persistent economic disadvantage.

Historical patterns of caste-related exclusion and occupational discrimination have contributed to the concentration of some Christian communities in low-paid and insecure employment.

Sanitation work is one particularly visible example, although it would be inaccurate to suggest that this occupation represents Pakistani Christians generally.

Economic vulnerability can have consequences when families seek legal protection.

Parents may be unable to afford lawyers, lose income while attending hearings or face pressure from employers and local powerholders.

Girls from economically disadvantaged households may also be exposed to unequal relationships in which an adult possesses considerably greater financial and social influence.

These conditions do not mean that Christian girls are inevitably victims or that every interfaith marriage involves coercion.

They do, however, help explain why allegations of abduction and forced marriage can become especially difficult for marginalised families to contest.

Hindu Communities and the Situation in Sindh

Pakistan's Hindu population is concentrated primarily in Sindh, although Hindu communities also live elsewhere in the country.

Sindh has a long history of religious and cultural diversity, with Muslim, Hindu and other communities sharing regional languages, customs and social traditions.

Religious coexistence remains part of everyday life in many areas.

Nevertheless, human rights organisations have repeatedly raised concerns about alleged forced conversions and marriages involving Hindu girls, particularly in parts of Sindh.

Some families report that their daughters were taken away and subsequently presented as having voluntarily embraced Islam.

In disputed cases, a conversion certificate and marriage document may become central pieces of evidence.

Parents may argue that their daughter was underage or unable to consent.

The husband or his representatives may maintain that she made an independent religious and marital choice.

These competing claims require investigation rather than assumptions based on either party's religion.

The situation becomes particularly concerning when a minor is involved or when the girl has not had an opportunity to speak privately with independent authorities.

The United Nations has called attention to the need for stronger safeguards against forced conversion and marriage, including effective investigations and protection for vulnerable girls.

The Pattern Reported by Human Rights Organisations

Reports concerning alleged forced conversion and marriage in Pakistan frequently describe a sequence of events.

A girl disappears or leaves her family home.

Her family approaches the police, sometimes alleging kidnapping.

Subsequently, documents emerge indicating that she has converted to Islam and married a Muslim man.

The family challenges the validity of the documents, the girl's age or the circumstances of her departure.

The matter may then proceed to court.

This pattern is significant, but it must not be treated as proof that every disputed marriage involved abduction.

Independent investigation is essential because cases differ in their facts and legal circumstances.

Some involve clear allegations of violence or intimidation.

Others involve disagreements between adult women and families who oppose interfaith relationships.

Still others involve disputed ages, conflicting documents or uncertainty about whether the person concerned acted freely.

The purpose of child-protection and criminal justice procedures is to distinguish between these situations.

Where an individual is under eighteen, the investigation must also consider the specific legal protections applicable to children.

Religious Conversion and the Question of Free Choice

Conversion to Islam is not inherently evidence of coercion.

Religious freedom includes the right of individuals to change their beliefs voluntarily.

In Pakistan, many people adopt religious identities through personal conviction, marriage, family circumstances or other individual experiences.

The concern arises when conversion is alleged to have occurred through threats, confinement, manipulation or other forms of pressure.

The United Nations Human Rights Committee has interpreted international freedom-of-religion protections as prohibiting coercion that would impair a person's freedom to have or adopt a religion or belief.

This principle applies regardless of which religion a person adopts or leaves.

In cases involving minors, questions of maturity, dependency and safeguarding require particular attention.

A child may be vulnerable to pressure from adults who control her accommodation, financial security or access to communication.

If a religious conversion occurs shortly after an alleged abduction, investigators must examine the circumstances carefully.

They should not presume that the conversion was forced solely because the family objects.

Equally, they should not presume that it was voluntary solely because a certificate exists.

The relevant question is whether the individual was genuinely free to make the decision.

The Influence of Religious Authorities

Religious leaders and institutions occupy influential positions within many Pakistani communities.

Mosques, seminaries, religious scholars and local religious organisations may provide education, guidance, charitable assistance and community leadership.

Their influence can extend into family matters and disputes involving marriage or conversion.

In some reported cases, religious figures have been involved in facilitating or documenting conversions and marriages that later became legally contested.

Their involvement may lend social credibility to a marriage or influence public perceptions of the dispute.

However, religious authority is not a substitute for lawful consent or compliance with child-protection legislation.

A religious ceremony cannot independently establish that an alleged kidnapping did not occur.

Nor can a religious declaration conclusively determine a person's age.

Religious leaders also differ considerably in their views.

Some defend traditional interpretations of marriage law, while others support stronger minimum-age protections and oppose coercion.

Treating all religious authorities as sharing a single position would obscure these important differences.

When Religious Identity Creates Unequal Power

A dispute involving a minority girl and a member of the religious majority can expose wider inequalities.

In some communities, the accused individual or his supporters may possess greater financial resources, political connections or local influence than the girl's family.

Religious identity can intensify these differences when a conversion is publicly celebrated or when objections are portrayed as hostility towards Islam.

Such circumstances may discourage witnesses from speaking openly or make families reluctant to pursue complaints.

The possibility of intimidation is particularly serious in environments where religious accusations can provoke public hostility.

Pakistan's blasphemy laws have been criticised by international human rights organisations because allegations can expose accused individuals to severe legal consequences and, in some cases, threats or violence outside the judicial process.

These laws are not the same as legislation governing marriage or religious conversion.

Nevertheless, the broader climate surrounding religious accusations may affect how safely minority families can challenge influential individuals.

The existence of such risks makes impartial policing and judicial independence especially important.

The Role of the Police

For many families, the first encounter with the justice system occurs at a local police station.

An effective response should begin with establishing whether a person is missing, whether a crime may have occurred and whether immediate protective measures are required.

Where a child is involved, safeguarding should be a priority.

Human rights organisations have reported concerns that some families alleging forced conversion or marriage encounter difficulties obtaining timely investigations.

Complaints may be delayed, disputed or treated primarily as family disagreements.

In other situations, police may receive documents suggesting that the girl married voluntarily and conclude that no further investigation is necessary.

Such an approach can be problematic if the girl's age, freedom of movement or ability to communicate independently has not been established.

Police officers must distinguish between an adult woman's lawful exercise of autonomy and a situation involving a child who may be at risk.

They must also investigate allegations without discrimination.

The religion of the complainant or accused should not determine whether evidence is collected or a complaint is taken seriously.

The Challenge of Obtaining Justice

Legal proceedings can become lengthy and emotionally exhausting.

Families may need to challenge marriage certificates, establish a daughter's age, seek access to her or contest statements they believe were made under pressure.

Where birth registration is incomplete or inconsistent, proving that a girl is underage can be difficult.

School records, identity documents and other evidence may become central to the case.

Disputed age assessments can have major consequences because child-marriage legislation differs across Pakistan's jurisdictions and has undergone significant reform.

It is therefore essential to examine the law applicable to the location and date of each alleged marriage.

Another challenge concerns the girl's ability to communicate independently.

If she remains with the man whose conduct is being questioned, concerns may arise about whether she can express her wishes without pressure.

Independent legal representation, safe accommodation and confidential access to child-protection professionals can help address these concerns.

Such measures should protect the girl without automatically transferring control over her decisions to her family.

The objective is to establish her safety, legal rights and genuine wishes.

International Concern and Government Responsibility

United Nations experts have repeatedly expressed concern about reports of forced religious conversion and marriage involving girls from religious minorities in Pakistan.

In April 2024, UN experts warned about the reported lack of protection for minority girls and called for stronger action against abduction, trafficking, child marriage and forced conversion.

They also raised concerns about judicial handling of cases in which girls' ages and consent were disputed.

Pakistan has international obligations under human rights treaties, including the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

These obligations require meaningful measures to protect children, address discrimination and prevent harmful practices.

Pakistan has also undertaken legal reforms in several jurisdictions aimed at restricting child marriage.

However, legislation alone cannot guarantee protection.

Effective implementation requires trained police officers, reliable age documentation, accessible legal assistance, independent courts and protection from intimidation.

It also requires authorities to recognise that freedom of religion includes the freedom not to convert.

The Danger of Reducing the Issue to Religious Conflict

The experiences of Christian and Hindu girls in Pakistan raise serious questions about religious discrimination.

Yet the problem cannot be understood solely through a conflict between Islam and minority religions.

Pakistani Muslim girls also experience child marriage, domestic violence and other forms of gender-based discrimination.

Poverty, unequal access to education, patriarchal expectations and weak enforcement of legal protections affect communities across religious boundaries.

At the same time, the additional vulnerability faced by religious minorities must not be overlooked.

A Christian or Hindu girl may encounter risks associated with gender, age, poverty and minority status simultaneously.

These overlapping disadvantages can make it more difficult to obtain protection.

The challenge for policymakers is therefore twofold: addressing child marriage and coercion across society while recognising the particular circumstances of religious minorities.

A Test of Equality Before the Law

Pakistan's Constitution establishes principles of religious freedom and equal protection.

The effectiveness of those principles is tested when vulnerable individuals seek justice against people who may possess greater social or religious influence.

A Christian family reporting the disappearance of a daughter should receive the same police response as a Muslim family.

A Hindu girl should receive the same protection against coercion as any other child.

An adult woman who voluntarily changes her religion should be able to exercise that right without unlawful interference from her family.

And a marriage involving a minor should be examined under the applicable law regardless of the religious identities of those involved.

These principles are not contradictory.

They reflect the distinction between protecting personal freedom and preventing exploitation.

The central failure occurs when institutions cannot reliably make that distinction or do not enforce the law impartially.

Beyond the Headlines

The controversy surrounding alleged forced conversions and marriages in Pakistan is frequently presented as a confrontation between religious communities.

But behind the political arguments are individual girls whose safety, education, relationships and futures may be at stake.

Some families spend years pursuing legal remedies.

Others face financial difficulties, social pressure or uncertainty about whether their daughters can return home.

For girls subjected to coercion, the consequences may continue long after the initial legal proceedings have ended.

The problem therefore requires more than public condemnation.

It requires functioning institutions capable of establishing facts, protecting children and enforcing the law without religious discrimination.

Pakistan's experience also raises questions relevant to other societies in which religious identity, family authority and state power intersect.

When a girl's freedom depends on whether authorities are willing to challenge coercion, the issue is no longer simply one of marriage or religion. It becomes a measure of whether the state can protect its most vulnerable citizens.

Chapter 3

Abduction, Conversion and Marriage: When Religion Becomes Part of the Legal Battle

In cases involving allegations of forced religious conversion and marriage, the events surrounding a girl's disappearance can become almost as significant as the disappearance itself.

A family may report that their daughter has been abducted. Shortly afterwards, documents may emerge indicating that she has converted to Islam and married a Muslim man. What began as a missing-person investigation can then develop into a complicated legal dispute involving religious freedom, marriage law, child protection and allegations of criminal conduct.

For the family, the central concern is whether their daughter was taken against her will and whether she is safe.

For the man accused of abducting her, the marriage and conversion documents may form part of his defence. He may maintain that the girl left voluntarily, embraced Islam and freely agreed to marry him.

For the authorities, the challenge is to establish what actually happened.

The existence of a marriage certificate does not establish that a relationship was consensual. Equally, a family's objection to an interfaith marriage does not, by itself, prove that abduction or coercion occurred.

The distinction becomes particularly important when the girl is underage, when her age is disputed or when she has had little opportunity to communicate independently.

In Pakistan, where concerns about forced conversions and marriages involving Christian and Hindu girls have been raised repeatedly by human rights organisations, these questions have become part of a wider debate about religious authority, legal protection and equality before the law.

From Disappearance to Marriage

Reports examined by human rights organisations describe cases in which a girl's disappearance is followed by the presentation of documents recording her conversion to Islam and marriage.

The precise circumstances vary considerably.

Some families allege that their daughters were physically abducted. Others report that girls were persuaded to leave home through promises of marriage, financial security or a better future.

In certain disputes, the individuals involved maintain that the relationship was voluntary and that the family objected because of religious differences.

These competing accounts are one reason why independent investigations are essential.

Where abduction is alleged, investigators must examine the circumstances in which the girl left her home, whether threats or violence were involved, where she was taken and whether she could communicate freely.

They must also establish whether she was legally capable of entering the marriage.

A religious ceremony or subsequent marriage registration cannot automatically resolve those questions.

If a criminal offence occurred before the marriage, the later existence of a marriage certificate does not erase the need to investigate it.

For minors, the responsibilities of the authorities extend beyond determining whether the girl verbally agreed to the relationship.

They must also consider child-protection legislation, the possibility of exploitation and the imbalance of power between a child and an adult.

The Role of Religious Conversion

Religious conversion is among the most sensitive aspects of these cases.

Under international human rights standards, freedom of religion includes the right to adopt or change one's beliefs without coercion.

A person may voluntarily convert to Islam, Christianity, Hinduism or another religion, or decide not to follow any religion.

Such decisions are protected aspects of personal freedom.

The concern arises when a conversion is alleged to have taken place under pressure or in circumstances involving intimidation, confinement or dependency.

In some disputed cases in Pakistan, conversion certificates have been presented alongside marriage documents to demonstrate that a girl adopted Islam before marrying a Muslim man.

Religious leaders may have witnessed or recorded the conversion.

However, the existence of a certificate does not establish whether the declaration was voluntary.

A girl who is isolated from her family, dependent on an adult or afraid of retaliation may face circumstances that affect her ability to express her wishes freely.

This does not mean that every conversion following a disputed relationship is forced.

It means that the surrounding circumstances must be examined rather than treating a religious declaration as conclusive evidence.

The distinction is particularly important where a minor is involved.

Religious freedom cannot be used to remove a child's entitlement to protection from coercion, exploitation or unlawful marriage.

Marriage Documents and the Appearance of Legality

Marriage registration plays a central role in many legal disputes.

In Pakistan, Muslim marriages are commonly documented through a nikahnama, a marriage contract recording information about the parties and the marriage.

The document may include their names, ages, marital status and other relevant details.

A properly completed marriage contract can provide important evidence that a ceremony took place.

However, a marriage document is not conclusive proof that every legal requirement was satisfied.

Questions may arise about whether the individuals were correctly identified, whether their ages were accurately recorded and whether consent was freely given.

In cases involving allegations of forced conversion and marriage, families sometimes challenge the accuracy of information contained in the documents.

A particularly serious allegation concerns the recording of a minor as an adult.

If a girl's age is incorrectly stated, the document may create the appearance that she was legally eligible to marry.

The consequences can be substantial.

Authorities may initially rely on the recorded age when determining how to handle a complaint or whether child-marriage protections apply.

This is why independent age verification can become a decisive part of proceedings.

A court must examine the reliability of the evidence rather than assuming that a stated age is correct simply because it appears in a marriage document.

When a Child's Age Is Disputed

Age disputes can determine whether a case is treated primarily as a disagreement over marriage or as a potential violation of child-protection law.

Parents may produce birth certificates, school records or other documents indicating that their daughter is underage.

The husband or his representatives may present documents identifying her as eighteen or older.

When the records conflict, the court must assess their authenticity and evidential value.

Pakistan's legal framework adds complexity because marriage legislation has differed between jurisdictions and has changed over time.

For example, Sindh's Child Marriage Restraint Act 2013 established eighteen as the minimum marriage age for both males and females.

Other jurisdictions have historically applied different minimum ages, although reforms have progressively changed parts of the legal framework.

The law applicable to a particular case therefore depends on its location, date and relevant statutory provisions.

It is also necessary to distinguish between a marriage that violates a criminal prohibition and one that is legally void or voidable.

These are not always identical questions.

A marriage may expose participants or facilitators to criminal penalties without automatically being treated as legally nonexistent under every applicable legal framework.

Such distinctions can create difficulties for families seeking to challenge a marriage involving a minor.

They also demonstrate why legal reform must address not only minimum marriage ages but the legal consequences of violating them.

The Power of Religious Documentation

In communities where religious institutions hold considerable social authority, a conversion certificate may carry influence beyond its formal legal significance.

A declaration witnessed by a respected religious figure can be presented publicly as evidence that a person has embraced Islam.

Where a marriage follows, supporters may portray the relationship as religiously legitimate.

This can complicate a dispute if the girl's family alleges that she was abducted or forced to convert.

The central danger is the possibility that religious legitimacy may be confused with legal validity.

A religious authority may be competent to explain a ceremony or religious declaration, but that does not replace the responsibility of the state to investigate criminal allegations or enforce child-protection laws.

The same principle applies to marriage.

A religiously recognised ceremony does not establish that a child was legally capable of marrying or that consent was free from coercion.

Religious institutions can also play a constructive role.

Leaders who refuse to facilitate underage marriages, insist on reliable age documentation and refer suspected coercion to the authorities can strengthen protection.

The issue is therefore not simply the existence of religious authority, but how that authority is exercised and whether it respects legal safeguards.

When the Family Challenges the Marriage

For families who believe their daughter has been abducted, the appearance of conversion and marriage documents may mark the beginning of a difficult legal struggle.

They may need to pursue a criminal complaint, challenge the marriage, establish the girl's age and seek judicial orders to ensure her safety.

A petition seeking the production of a missing or unlawfully detained person before a court may become part of the legal process.

Such proceedings can help establish where the individual is being held and whether detention is lawful.

However, producing a person before a court does not necessarily resolve all allegations.

A girl may state that she wishes to remain with her husband.

Her family may insist that the statement is the result of threats or intimidation.

The court must then assess her legal capacity, the circumstances surrounding the statement and the evidence of possible coercion.

When the individual is an adult, her independent choice must be respected even if her family strongly objects.

When she is a child, the authorities must apply the relevant child-protection safeguards.

The challenge is to protect personal autonomy without allowing coercion to be concealed behind declarations of consent.

The Question of Independent Testimony

One of the most important safeguards in disputed cases is the opportunity for the girl to speak independently.

A statement made in the presence of a person accused of abducting or coercing her may raise questions about whether she feels free to speak openly.

Fear can influence behaviour even when no explicit threat is made in the courtroom.

A girl may worry about retaliation, social rejection or the consequences of contradicting an adult on whom she has become dependent.

Independent legal representation and confidential interviews can help reduce these risks.

Where a minor is involved, appropriately trained child-protection professionals should assess her immediate safety and welfare.

Safe accommodation may also be necessary while the authorities investigate.

However, protection must not become another form of coercion.

A girl should not automatically be returned to relatives if credible evidence indicates that doing so would place her at risk.

The objective is to establish the facts and protect her rights, not simply to decide which group of adults should exercise control over her.

Religious Pressure and Community Reactions

Disputes involving conversion can attract attention beyond the immediate families.

Religious organisations, local leaders and community members may become involved.

In some circumstances, a conversion is celebrated as an expression of religious commitment.

In others, minority communities interpret the circumstances as evidence of intimidation or discrimination.

Public reactions can intensify when the case involves a child or allegations of abduction.

Religious identity may then become central to the controversy, sometimes overshadowing the individual circumstances of the girl.

This creates risks for everyone involved.

Families may face pressure to withdraw complaints.

Witnesses may fear becoming involved.

The girl herself may become the subject of public attention at a time when her privacy and safety should be protected.

Authorities must therefore investigate allegations without allowing public pressure or religious mobilisation to determine the outcome.

Religious freedom includes the right to convert voluntarily.

It does not include a right to compel another person to adopt a belief.

Likewise, opposition to a voluntary conversion does not justify threats or violence against the person who has changed religion.

The Role of Police and Prosecutors

An effective response to an allegation of abduction followed by conversion and marriage requires more than checking whether marriage documents exist.

Police should investigate the original circumstances of the disappearance.

This may involve examining witness accounts, communication records, travel information and other relevant evidence.

Where the girl is a minor, her age must be established using reliable documentation.

Investigators must also consider whether threats, confinement, deception or exploitation occurred.

If there is evidence of criminal conduct, prosecutors should assess the appropriate charges under the applicable law.

A marriage certificate should not automatically prevent an investigation into an alleged offence.

Equally, criminal proceedings must be based on evidence rather than religious prejudice or assumptions about interfaith relationships.

The objective is a fair investigation that protects the complainant, the accused and the individual whose freedom is in question.

When authorities fail to distinguish between these responsibilities, legal proceedings risk becoming a contest of influence rather than a search for the truth.

A Legal System Facing Difficult Questions

The challenges surrounding alleged forced conversion and marriage reveal tensions within Pakistan's legal system.

The Constitution protects religious freedom and equality before the law.

National and provincial legislation establishes rules governing marriage and criminal conduct.

International human rights obligations require the protection of children and freedom from coercion.

Yet these protections may intersect with differing interpretations of religious law, social expectations and disputed evidence.

Courts must determine how the applicable laws operate in individual cases.

The legal difficulty is not resolved by choosing religious freedom over child protection, or child protection over religious freedom.

Both principles matter.

An adult woman must be free to adopt a religion and marry without unlawful interference.

A child must be protected from exploitation and unlawful marriage.

And no person should be subjected to abduction, threats or forced religious conversion.

A functioning justice system must be capable of protecting all three principles simultaneously.

What International Human Rights Standards Require

International human rights law provides an important framework for evaluating these disputes.

Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognises freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including the freedom to change religion or belief.

Article 16 states that marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also protects freedom of religion and requires free and full consent to marriage.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child establishes obligations concerning children's protection, welfare and development.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women requires states to address discrimination in marriage and family relations.

These principles are relevant regardless of the religious identities of those involved.

They do not prohibit voluntary religious conversion or lawful interfaith marriage.

They require that personal decisions be free from coercion and that children receive appropriate legal protection.

For governments, the obligation extends beyond adopting legislation.

Effective safeguards require functioning investigations, accessible courts, reliable civil registration and protection for individuals facing intimidation.

The Human Cost of a Disputed Marriage

Legal disputes can continue for months or years.

During that time, the girl may experience uncertainty about her future, separation from relatives and intense pressure from competing parties.

Her education may be interrupted.

Her personal relationships may become strained.

If she has experienced coercion, violence or sexual exploitation, the psychological and physical consequences may be profound.

Families may also experience financial hardship while pursuing legal proceedings.

Legal fees, travel expenses and lost income can place considerable pressure on households already facing economic disadvantage.

For religious minorities, the fear of discrimination or public hostility may create additional difficulties.

Yet the most important consideration remains the girl's own safety and rights.

Her future should not be treated as a symbolic victory for either religious community.

She is an individual entitled to protection, dignity and, within the framework of the law, control over her own life.

When Marriage Becomes a Shield Against Accountability

The most troubling possibility in these cases is that a marriage or conversion document may be used to discourage scrutiny of alleged wrongdoing.

Where a girl has been abducted, threatened or exploited, the subsequent performance of a religious ceremony cannot undo those acts.

Where a minor has been unlawfully married, a certificate cannot automatically remove the protections established by legislation.

And where a religious conversion has been obtained through coercion, the existence of a written declaration does not make the underlying decision voluntary.

These principles are essential because legal documents can create an appearance of legitimacy even when the circumstances surrounding their creation remain disputed.

A court must therefore look beyond the documents themselves.

It must examine the girl's age, the evidence of consent, the circumstances of the relationship and the applicable legal requirements.

The purpose of justice is not simply to determine whether a ceremony occurred.

It is to determine whether the law was respected and whether the individuals involved were protected from harm.

Beyond the Legal Documents

The intersection of abduction, conversion and marriage demonstrates how vulnerable girls can become caught between family expectations, religious authority and the legal system.

Some cases involve serious allegations of criminal exploitation.

Others involve contested relationships in which adult women seek to exercise their independence against family opposition.

The distinction is fundamental.

Failure to recognise coercion can leave victims without protection.

Failure to recognise genuine autonomy can deprive women of their freedom.

For minors, the state's protective responsibilities are particularly important.

The law must ensure that a child's age and vulnerability are not overlooked because a marriage has been registered or a religious conversion has been declared.

Ultimately, the legitimacy of any marriage depends on more than the existence of documents or the approval of religious authorities.

It depends on lawful capacity, genuine consent and the absence of coercion.

When a girl's future is determined by documents she may not have freely understood or agreed to, the central question is whether the legal system is protecting her rights — or merely recognising the authority of those who claim to speak for her.

Chapter 4

When Adult Men Marry Children: Power, Consent and the Loss of Childhood

Marriage is generally understood as a commitment between two individuals who freely choose to build a life together. Yet across parts of South Asia, the Middle East and other regions, marriages involving children continue to raise serious questions about consent, exploitation and the unequal distribution of power.

When an adult man marries a girl who is still a child, the relationship may involve significant differences in age, experience, financial independence and social authority.

These differences do not automatically establish that every marriage was arranged through threats or physical force. However, they create circumstances in which a child's ability to make an independent decision may be severely restricted.

For girls who have been abducted, pressured into marriage or separated from their families, the imbalance can be particularly extreme.

Their circumstances may involve not only the loss of childhood but also interrupted education, restricted freedom of movement, early pregnancy and long-term economic dependency.

In Pakistan, Afghanistan and conflict-affected parts of the Middle East, child marriage remains a human rights concern. The underlying causes differ between countries and communities, but recurring factors include poverty, gender inequality, insecurity, social expectations and gaps in legal protection.

Religion can also influence the debate, particularly where interpretations of religious law are invoked to defend marriages involving minors.

Understanding the problem requires examining both the individual consequences for girls and the wider systems that allow such marriages to continue.

The Difference Between Marriage and Meaningful Consent

Consent is central to the legitimacy of marriage.

International human rights standards recognise that marriage should be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.

For children, however, the question of consent is more complicated than whether they verbally agree to a ceremony.

A girl may say that she accepts a marriage because she fears disappointing her family, losing financial support or facing social consequences.

She may be told that the marriage is a religious duty, a family obligation or the only realistic way to secure her future.

In some cases, she may have little understanding of the responsibilities, legal implications or potential risks involved.

The absence of physical resistance does not necessarily demonstrate free choice.

Coercion may involve emotional pressure, intimidation, threats or the exploitation of dependency.

When an adult man is significantly older than the girl, the relationship may also involve substantial differences in bargaining power.

He may control the household's income, accommodation and access to social networks.

The girl may have limited education, few financial resources and little practical ability to leave.

These inequalities are especially concerning when the marriage occurs before she has completed her physical, emotional and social development.

Why Some Adult Men Marry Underage Girls

The motivations behind child marriage are not uniform.

In some societies, marriage at a young age has historically been associated with family alliances, economic arrangements, social expectations or ideas about protecting a girl's reputation.

Families may believe that marriage offers security, particularly where education and employment opportunities for girls are limited.

In other circumstances, marriage may be used to resolve family disputes, settle financial obligations or strengthen relationships between households.

Where an adult man seeks to marry a minor, the arrangement can also reflect deeply unequal expectations concerning gender and authority.

A younger wife may be perceived as more dependent or easier to influence.

Such attitudes can reinforce the idea that men should exercise control over their wives' decisions, mobility and social relationships.

However, these explanations must be distinguished from evidence about individual motives.

It would be inaccurate to assume that every adult man entering a child marriage does so for the same reason.

What matters from a child-protection perspective is that the arrangement may expose a minor to risks she is not equipped to manage.

The responsibility of the state is to establish and enforce safeguards regardless of the motivations claimed by the adults involved.

Poverty and the Economics of Child Marriage

Economic hardship is one of the most frequently identified drivers of child marriage.

Families experiencing poverty may struggle to provide food, education, healthcare and secure accommodation for their children.

In such circumstances, marriage can be perceived as a way to reduce household expenses or transfer financial responsibility to another family.

Some families may also believe that an older husband with a stable income can provide greater security than a younger partner.

These calculations are particularly relevant in communities affected by unemployment, displacement or limited access to public services.

Yet the perceived short-term financial benefits can conceal substantial long-term costs.

Girls who marry early are more likely to experience interrupted education and reduced opportunities for paid employment.

Without independent income, they may become dependent on their husbands or extended families.

If the marriage becomes abusive, financial insecurity can make leaving extremely difficult.

Child marriage can therefore contribute to an intergenerational cycle in which poverty increases the likelihood of early marriage, while early marriage reduces the opportunities available to escape poverty.

Economic disadvantage does not remove the responsibility to protect children.

It does, however, demonstrate why legal restrictions are most effective when accompanied by education, social protection and meaningful economic opportunities.

The Influence of Family Honour and Social Expectations

In some communities, expectations concerning family honour, modesty and female sexuality influence decisions about marriage.

A girl's behaviour may be viewed as reflecting the reputation of her entire family.

Parents may fear gossip, social exclusion or accusations that they have failed to supervise their daughter.

Marriage can consequently be presented as a means of protecting family honour.

Such attitudes may be reinforced by restrictive gender norms that give boys greater personal freedom while closely controlling girls' relationships and movements.

The pressure can become especially intense during adolescence.

Families may believe that marrying a daughter early will prevent relationships considered socially unacceptable or protect her from harassment.

Yet marriage does not guarantee safety.

A girl who enters an unequal relationship may face new forms of control, including restrictions on education, friendships, communication and freedom of movement.

The belief that marriage protects family reputation can therefore conflict with the girl's own rights and wellbeing.

These social expectations are not exclusive to Muslim communities.

Honour-based restrictions and harmful marriage practices occur in different religious and cultural settings.

Nevertheless, the specific religious and social arguments used to defend them must be examined within each society.

Religion and the Debate Over Marriage Age

Religious interpretations play an important role in debates about child marriage in several Muslim-majority countries.

Classical Islamic jurisprudence developed in historical societies with different legal systems, family structures and understandings of childhood.

Different schools of Islamic law addressed questions of marriage contracts, puberty, maturity and the authority of guardians.

Some historical interpretations permitted marriage contracts involving minors under conditions that would not meet contemporary international child-protection standards.

These interpretations remain part of legal and theological debates in certain countries.

However, Islamic legal thought is not uniform.

Muslim scholars and reformers have argued that marriage must be understood in relation to welfare, maturity, consent and the prevention of harm.

Modern Muslim-majority states have adopted different statutory minimum marriage ages, demonstrating that religious identity does not produce a single legal approach.

Pakistan's provinces and territories have also developed differing marriage laws, with reforms continuing over time.

The central legal issue is whether religious arguments are permitted to override protections established for children.

A historical religious interpretation cannot, by itself, determine whether a marriage complies with contemporary national legislation or international human rights obligations.

Nor should the religious status of a marriage prevent authorities from investigating allegations of coercion or abuse.

The Physical Consequences of Early Marriage

Child marriage can expose girls to serious reproductive health risks, particularly when it leads to pregnancy during adolescence.

The World Health Organization identifies adolescent pregnancy as an important public health concern.

Adolescent mothers face elevated risks of certain pregnancy and childbirth complications compared with women in their twenties.

The level of risk depends on factors including age, access to healthcare, nutrition and underlying health conditions.

Very young adolescents may face particular vulnerabilities because their bodies are still developing.

Pregnancy can also interrupt education and increase dependence on a spouse or extended family.

In areas with limited maternal healthcare, complications may become more dangerous because emergency obstetric services are difficult to access.

The consequences extend to children born to adolescent mothers.

According to the WHO, babies born to adolescent mothers face higher risks of low birth weight, preterm birth and severe neonatal conditions.

These risks make access to reproductive healthcare, education and protection from early marriage essential components of public health policy.

Importantly, not every child marriage results in immediate pregnancy.

Nevertheless, early marriage can increase the likelihood of early childbearing, especially where girls have limited control over reproductive decisions.

Sexual Exploitation and the Limits of Consent

Marriage does not eliminate the possibility of sexual violence.

A person can experience sexual coercion or assault within a marital relationship.

For girls married as children, unequal power relationships may make it particularly difficult to refuse sexual activity or seek assistance.

An older spouse may control financial resources, accommodation and access to healthcare.

A girl may also face social pressure to fulfil expectations concerning sexual relations and childbirth.

Where she lacks independent income or family support, resistance may carry serious practical consequences.

Legal systems differ in how they define and prosecute sexual offences involving minors and spouses.

These differences can affect the protection available to girls who experience abuse within marriage.

A crucial distinction must be maintained between the existence of a marriage and the legality of sexual conduct.

A marriage certificate does not automatically establish lawful consent to sexual activity, nor does it erase applicable criminal protections.

Human rights organisations have therefore called for stronger safeguards against sexual violence, including violence occurring within marriage.

For children, effective protection requires laws that recognise their age and vulnerability rather than assuming that marriage removes the need for safeguarding.

Education: The Opportunity That Disappears

Education is one of the most significant factors influencing a girl's future independence.

It can provide knowledge, professional opportunities, financial security and greater participation in public life.

Child marriage frequently disrupts that process.

A girl who marries may be expected to assume domestic responsibilities, care for relatives or become pregnant.

Her husband or extended family may discourage further education.

Schools may also lack policies or resources to support married adolescents or young mothers.

Once education is interrupted, returning can be difficult.

Childcare responsibilities, financial constraints and social stigma may prevent a girl from completing her studies.

The consequences extend beyond the individual.

Reduced educational attainment can affect household income, children's health and broader economic development.

UNICEF and other international organisations have consistently identified girls' education as an important protective factor against child marriage.

Keeping girls in school, particularly through secondary education, can help expand their opportunities and reduce vulnerability to harmful practices.

Afghanistan: Marriage in an Environment of Restricted Freedom

Afghanistan presents a particularly concerning environment for girls' rights.

Since returning to power in August 2021, the Taliban have imposed extensive restrictions on women's and girls' participation in education, employment and public life.

Girls have been excluded from secondary education beyond the early grades, while women's access to higher education and many forms of employment has been severely restricted.

These policies have reduced opportunities for independence and contributed to wider concerns about the future of Afghan girls.

Child marriage in Afghanistan predates the Taliban's return to power and has multiple causes, including poverty, conflict, displacement and longstanding social practices.

However, restrictions on education and economic participation can intensify the conditions associated with early marriage.

Families facing severe financial hardship may regard marriage as one of the few available options for daughters whose educational opportunities have been curtailed.

The Taliban announced a decree in December 2021 stating that women should not be forced into marriage.

Nevertheless, the decree did not establish a clear universal minimum marriage age, and concerns remain about enforcement and the wider absence of effective protections for women and girls.

The situation illustrates why formal statements opposing forced marriage are insufficient when broader policies restrict girls' autonomy and opportunities.

Syria: Conflict, Displacement and Vulnerability

In Syria, years of war have transformed the circumstances in which many families make decisions about marriage.

Displacement, destroyed infrastructure, economic hardship and insecurity have affected millions of people.

For some families, early marriage has been perceived as a means of providing financial support or protection for daughters.

Research involving Syrian refugee communities has documented concerns about child marriage, including cases in which families associated marriage with perceived safety or economic stability.

These decisions must be understood within the context of prolonged humanitarian crisis.

However, the circumstances that make child marriage appear attractive do not eliminate its risks.

Girls who marry early may experience interrupted education, early pregnancy, domestic responsibilities and dependence on spouses.

Displacement can also make it harder to access legal documentation, healthcare and protection services.

The Syrian experience demonstrates how conflict can intensify existing gender inequalities and create additional pressures on vulnerable families.

It should not be confused with the distinct patterns of alleged forced religious conversion documented in Pakistan.

Although the problems may overlap in individual cases, their causes and legal contexts differ.

When a Girl Cannot Leave the Marriage

One of the most serious consequences of child marriage is the difficulty of leaving an unwanted or abusive relationship.

A girl may have no independent income, limited education and few employment opportunities.

Her family may refuse to accept her return because of social stigma or financial concerns.

She may fear losing contact with her children.

In some jurisdictions, legal procedures governing divorce, custody and maintenance can create additional obstacles.

A lack of accessible legal assistance may further restrict her options.

For girls who have been separated from their families through alleged abduction, the situation can be even more complicated.

They may not know where to seek help or may fear retaliation if they attempt to leave.

Effective protection therefore requires more than laws prohibiting child marriage.

It also requires shelters, confidential reporting mechanisms, legal representation, healthcare and opportunities for education or employment.

Without such support, formal legal rights may offer little practical freedom.

The Psychological Consequences

The psychological effects of forced or early marriage can be substantial.

Girls may experience fear, anxiety, isolation and a loss of control over their futures.

Those exposed to violence, sexual coercion or prolonged intimidation may experience trauma-related symptoms.

Separation from friends, relatives and familiar surroundings can intensify distress.

The loss of educational opportunities and independence may also contribute to feelings of hopelessness.

However, experiences vary.

Not every girl who marries early experiences the same psychological outcomes, and mental health consequences depend on individual circumstances and available support.

Research into child marriage has identified associations with adverse mental health outcomes, although causal relationships can be difficult to isolate from poverty, violence and other underlying disadvantages.

Support services should therefore respond to individual needs rather than assuming that every survivor has the same experience.

Confidential counselling, healthcare and access to trusted professionals can form part of recovery.

Why Legal Protection Remains Inconsistent

Governments across the region have adopted different approaches to minimum marriage ages and the regulation of child marriage.

Some have established eighteen as the legal minimum, while others retain exceptions involving parental consent, judicial approval or religious law.

The existence of exceptions can weaken protections if they permit marriages involving children without sufficient safeguards.

Enforcement is another major challenge.

Marriage ceremonies may take place informally or without reliable registration.

Birth documentation may be incomplete.

Local authorities may lack resources or training.

In some circumstances, families or religious figures may resist legal restrictions they consider inconsistent with established traditions.

These problems demonstrate that legislation must be accompanied by effective implementation.

Clear minimum-age rules, reliable registration, accountability for unlawful marriages and accessible protection services are all important.

The legal framework must also address the consequences of a prohibited marriage and the rights of the girl involved.

The Responsibility of Religious and Community Leaders

Religious and community leaders can influence attitudes towards marriage.

Their authority may shape how families interpret religious teachings, social obligations and the responsibilities of parents.

Where leaders defend marriages involving minors, their influence can contribute to the persistence of harmful practices.

Where they challenge coercion and support education, they can help strengthen protection.

This distinction is important.

Religious leadership is not inherently opposed to children's rights.

Muslim scholars, women's rights advocates and community organisations have participated in debates over marriage reform and the protection of girls.

Some have argued that preventing harm, ensuring maturity and respecting consent are consistent with Islamic ethical principles.

Others have defended more traditional legal interpretations.

These disagreements reflect wider debates over religious authority, social change and the relationship between historical jurisprudence and contemporary law.

The responsibility of the state remains clear: children must receive protection regardless of which interpretation a community follows.

Protecting Girls Without Ignoring Their Voices

Efforts to prevent child marriage must place girls' rights and experiences at the centre of policy.

Protection should not mean simply transferring authority from a husband to a parent or another adult.

Girls should have access to education, healthcare, reliable information and appropriate opportunities to express their views.

Their age and evolving capacities must be considered.

Where abuse or coercion is suspected, independent safeguarding measures are essential.

Where an adolescent seeks help, authorities should provide support without exposing her to further punishment or stigma.

The objective is not only to prevent harmful marriages but also to create circumstances in which girls have meaningful alternatives.

Education, economic security and legal protection can expand those alternatives.

What Must Change

Ending child marriage requires action at several levels.

Governments must establish effective legal safeguards and enforce them consistently.

Police and courts must respond to allegations of coercion without discrimination.

Civil registration systems must provide reliable evidence of age.

Schools must remain accessible to girls, including those facing poverty, displacement or family pressure.

Healthcare services must address the needs of adolescents, including those who are already married or pregnant.

Religious and community leaders can help challenge practices that expose children to harm.

International organisations can support local protection programmes and research.

Yet none of these measures can succeed if the voices and experiences of girls remain secondary to the interests of adults.

A child should not be expected to sacrifice education, independence or physical safety to satisfy family expectations or social traditions.

Beyond Marriage: The Right to a Future

Child marriage is often discussed through statistics, legislation and cultural debates.

But its consequences are experienced by individual girls.

A girl who leaves school at fourteen may lose opportunities that would otherwise shape her entire adult life.

A girl who becomes financially dependent on an older husband may find it difficult to challenge decisions affecting her health or safety.

A girl who experiences sexual coercion or violence may face barriers to seeking protection.

And a girl who has been abducted or forced into marriage may spend years trying to regain control over her future.

These experiences reveal why the issue cannot be reduced to tradition or religious interpretation alone.

It concerns the balance of power between adults and children, the responsibility of institutions and the meaning of genuine consent.

Marriage should not become a mechanism through which a child's vulnerability is transformed into another person's authority.

A society's commitment to protecting children is measured not by the traditions it defends, but by the freedom, safety and opportunities it provides to those who are least able to protect themselves.

Chapter 5

Religion, Tradition and the Question of Consent

The relationship between religion and child marriage is one of the most sensitive and contested aspects of the wider debate about women's rights, personal freedom and the protection of minors.

Across parts of South Asia and the Middle East, religious beliefs influence family relationships, marriage customs and legal systems. In some societies, religious authorities continue to exercise considerable influence over decisions concerning marriage, divorce, guardianship and the roles of men and women.

Islam occupies a particularly important place in this discussion because several countries where child marriage remains a concern have Muslim-majority populations and legal systems influenced, to varying degrees, by Islamic jurisprudence.

Yet the relationship between Islam and child marriage is neither simple nor uniform.

Classical Islamic legal traditions developed different approaches to marriage contracts, puberty, maturity and guardianship. Modern Muslim-majority states have adopted different minimum marriage ages, while religious scholars continue to disagree about how historical interpretations should apply to contemporary societies.

Some individuals invoke religious arguments to defend marriages involving minors. Others maintain that child marriage contradicts the ethical principles of consent, welfare and protection from harm.

Understanding these disagreements is essential.

It allows the discussion to move beyond generalisations about religion and towards a more precise examination of how religious authority, legal interpretation and social power affect the lives of vulnerable girls.

Marriage in Classical Islamic Jurisprudence

Marriage occupies an important place in Islamic religious and social life.

In classical Islamic jurisprudence, marriage was generally understood as a contractual relationship that established rights and responsibilities between spouses.

Legal scholars developed detailed rules concerning marriage contracts, guardianship, financial obligations, divorce and family relationships.

These rules emerged within societies whose understandings of childhood, adulthood and family authority differed significantly from contemporary legal standards.

Classical jurists often distinguished between the conclusion of a marriage contract and the commencement of marital life.

Questions of puberty, physical maturity and the authority of guardians were central to their discussions.

In several classical Sunni legal traditions, a guardian could contract a marriage on behalf of a minor, although the conditions, rights and legal consequences differed between schools of law.

Some jurists recognised circumstances in which a person could challenge a marriage arranged during childhood.

Others placed greater authority in the hands of particular guardians.

These differences demonstrate that Islamic jurisprudence did not develop a single, universally applied model of marriage eligibility.

Nevertheless, historical legal permissions involving minors have become central to contemporary debates about child marriage.

Critics argue that such interpretations are incompatible with modern understandings of children's rights and the requirement for free and full consent.

Supporters of traditional jurisprudence may argue that historical religious rulings should not be overridden by modern legislation.

The disagreement concerns not only marriage age but also the broader question of who possesses authority to interpret religious law.

The Historical Debate Surrounding Aisha's Marriage

One of the most frequently discussed historical questions concerns the marriage of the Prophet Muhammad to Aisha.

Certain widely recognised Sunni hadith collections, including Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, contain narrations stating that Aisha was six years old when her marriage contract was concluded and nine when the marriage was consummated.

These narrations have played an important role in classical Islamic discussions of marriage age.

However, their historical interpretation remains debated.

Some contemporary Muslim scholars accept the traditional narrations while arguing that historical circumstances cannot automatically determine modern marriage legislation.

Others have questioned the conventional chronology, drawing on alternative historical accounts and interpretations.

The debate is therefore both historical and theological.

From a journalistic perspective, it is important to distinguish between what particular religious texts report, how those reports have been interpreted and whether they should influence contemporary law.

The existence of a historical narration does not establish that every Muslim community accepts child marriage today.

Nor does it mean that all Muslim scholars consider marriages involving minors appropriate in modern circumstances.

Nevertheless, these narrations are relevant because they have been cited in arguments opposing statutory restrictions on marriage age.

The central contemporary question is whether historical precedent should be used to justify arrangements that may expose children to exploitation or harm.

Puberty, Maturity and the Meaning of Adulthood

Historically, puberty played an important role in determining aspects of legal capacity in several religious and customary legal systems.

In classical Islamic jurisprudence, the concept of bulugh, or puberty, was associated with reaching a stage of religious and legal responsibility.

However, puberty and maturity were not necessarily treated as identical concepts in every legal context.

The Qur'an itself refers to marriageable age and sound judgement in a passage concerning the management of orphans' property.

Qur'an 4:6 has therefore featured in contemporary debates about whether marriage eligibility should require more than physical puberty.

Modern child-protection standards distinguish biological development from the broader capacity to make informed decisions.

A girl may reach puberty while remaining emotionally, socially and economically dependent on adults.

She may lack the education, experience and practical independence needed to understand the consequences of marriage.

This distinction is particularly important when an adult man seeks to marry a young adolescent.

Physical development alone does not establish that a child can freely negotiate the responsibilities and potential risks of marriage.

Contemporary human rights frameworks generally recognise eighteen as the minimum age for marriage, with international bodies calling for the elimination of child marriage.

The debate therefore concerns whether historical concepts of puberty should continue to determine marriage eligibility or whether legal standards should reflect contemporary evidence about children's development and vulnerability.

The Role of Guardians and Family Authority

Guardianship is another important element of the debate.

In classical Islamic legal traditions, the concept of wali refers to a guardian who may have a role in marriage arrangements.

The precise authority of guardians differs between legal schools.

Some interpretations require a guardian's involvement in a woman's marriage, while others recognise greater independence for adult women.

The Hanafi school, influential in Pakistan and other parts of South Asia, has historically recognised the capacity of an adult woman of sound mind to contract her own marriage, subject to particular legal conditions.

Other Sunni schools have generally placed greater emphasis on the guardian's role.

These differences matter because disputes over marriage may involve competing claims of family authority and individual choice.

Parents may argue that a marriage is invalid because they did not consent.

A woman may maintain that she is legally entitled to marry independently.

Where the individual is an adult, religious freedom and personal autonomy require serious consideration.

Where she is a child, the issue becomes more complicated.

A guardian's approval cannot automatically establish that a marriage is consistent with child-protection law.

Nor should parental authority be treated as unlimited.

The central concern is whether the law protects the child from coercion and exploitation, regardless of which adult claims authority over her.

Can Religious Consent Be Considered Genuine?

Consent is recognised as an important principle within Islamic marriage discussions.

A number of hadith narrations address the requirement to seek a woman's agreement before marriage.

However, the interpretation and application of these teachings have varied historically.

In contemporary practice, questions arise when consent is expressed in circumstances involving family pressure, economic dependency or substantial differences in age and authority.

A girl may agree to a marriage because she has been taught that refusing would be religiously wrong.

She may fear social rejection or believe that obedience to her family is a religious obligation.

In other situations, she may be pressured by a prospective husband or religious figure.

These circumstances do not automatically establish coercion in every individual case.

However, they demonstrate why a verbal declaration of consent cannot always be considered sufficient.

A meaningful assessment must consider whether the individual could refuse without facing threats, punishment or serious consequences.

For minors, the question of legal capacity remains separate from the question of verbal agreement.

A child may express willingness to marry while still being below the statutory minimum marriage age.

Religious approval does not remove the state's responsibility to enforce the applicable law.

When Religious Authority Influences National Law

The relationship between Islamic jurisprudence and national legislation differs significantly across Muslim-majority countries.

Some states apply codified family laws influenced by Islamic legal principles.

Others maintain separate religious courts or personal-status systems.

In certain jurisdictions, civil legislation establishes a minimum marriage age while allowing exceptions through judicial or parental approval.

These differences can produce substantial variation in the legal protection available to children.

Pakistan provides a particularly important example.

Its constitutional system recognises Islam as the state religion while also protecting religious freedom and equality before the law.

Marriage legislation has historically differed between provinces and territories.

Sindh established eighteen as the minimum marriage age for both sexes under the Sindh Child Marriage Restraint Act 2013.

Subsequent reforms elsewhere have changed parts of the national legal landscape, although the precise legal position must be assessed by jurisdiction and date.

Debates over marriage reform have sometimes involved religious objections.

Some opponents have argued that statutory restrictions should not conflict with their understanding of Islamic law.

Others, including Muslim legal scholars and women's rights advocates, have supported higher minimum ages as consistent with the protection of children.

These disagreements illustrate how religious interpretation can influence legislative reform.

They also demonstrate that the legal position cannot be understood simply by identifying a country as Muslim-majority.

Pakistan's Religious Institutions and Marriage Reform

Religious institutions play a significant role in Pakistani public life.

The Council of Islamic Ideology, established under the Constitution, advises lawmakers on whether legislation is consistent with Islamic principles.

Its recommendations are influential in public debate, although they do not automatically become binding law.

The Council has historically expressed positions on marriage age that have generated controversy among women's rights organisations and child-protection advocates.

Some religious figures have argued that marriage eligibility should be linked to puberty rather than a fixed statutory age.

Others have supported legislative safeguards designed to prevent exploitation.

These disagreements have implications beyond theological discussion.

When religious authorities publicly question minimum-age restrictions, their statements may influence lawmakers, community leaders and families.

Conversely, religious support for reform can help challenge harmful practices and strengthen public acceptance of child-protection measures.

The issue is therefore not whether religious institutions should participate in public debate.

It is whether their influence contributes to legal protection or creates obstacles to preventing harm.

Religious Conversion and Marriage to a Muslim Man

The connection between religious conversion and marriage raises additional legal and theological questions.

Classical Islamic jurisprudence contains rules concerning marriage between Muslims and non-Muslims.

Traditional interpretations generally permit Muslim men to marry women from certain recognised religious communities, particularly Christians and Jews, while imposing different restrictions on Muslim women marrying non-Muslim men.

The treatment of marriages involving other religious communities has varied between legal schools and historical contexts.

In Pakistan, allegations of forced conversion have frequently involved Christian and Hindu girls who subsequently married Muslim men.

The role of conversion must therefore be examined carefully.

A declaration of conversion may affect how a marriage is understood within a religious community.

However, it cannot establish that a girl was not abducted, that she was legally old enough to marry or that she acted without coercion.

These are separate questions requiring independent legal assessment.

Religious freedom protects voluntary conversion.

It does not protect the use of threats or intimidation to compel another person to adopt a religion.

Where conversion and marriage occur under disputed circumstances, the authorities must investigate both the religious declaration and the marriage without assuming that one validates the other.

The Position of Christian and Hindu Girls

Religious minority status can create additional vulnerability in cases involving disputed conversion and marriage.

Christian and Hindu girls in Pakistan may face overlapping disadvantages associated with gender, age, poverty and religious identity.

In some communities, minority families possess limited political influence or economic resources.

This can affect their ability to challenge an influential individual or pursue lengthy legal proceedings.

Religious differences may also intensify public reactions.

A conversion from Christianity or Hinduism to Islam can be interpreted by some individuals as a religious achievement.

For the girl's family, however, the circumstances may represent an alleged loss of freedom or a violation of their daughter's rights.

These competing interpretations can overshadow the central question of consent.

The legal system must therefore avoid treating the case primarily as a dispute between religions.

Its responsibility is to establish the individual's age, wishes and circumstances, investigate alleged offences and ensure protection from coercion.

A girl's religious identity should not determine the level of legal protection she receives.

The Difference Between Religion and Cultural Tradition

Not every practice described as religious is required by religious doctrine.

Customary marriage arrangements, family honour expectations and gender roles often develop through a combination of religion, local culture, economic conditions and historical social structures.

In some communities, traditions may be defended through religious language even when their origins are primarily social.

This distinction is important when examining child marriage.

Early marriage occurs in Muslim, Christian, Hindu and other communities in different parts of the world.

Its prevalence is influenced by factors including poverty, limited education, conflict and gender inequality.

Nevertheless, religion can shape how these practices are justified or challenged.

A religious argument may provide legitimacy to a custom that would otherwise be questioned.

Alternatively, religious teachings may be used to argue against coercion and exploitation.

Understanding the interaction between belief and social practice is therefore more useful than treating religion and culture as entirely separate explanations.

Muslim Scholars Who Challenge Child Marriage

Debates over marriage age are taking place within Muslim communities themselves.

Religious scholars, women's rights advocates and reformers have argued that contemporary marriage laws should prioritise maturity, welfare and the prevention of harm.

Some draw on Qur'anic principles concerning justice, responsibility and sound judgement.

Others emphasise the Islamic legal principle that harm should be prevented.

The concept of maqasid al-sharia, commonly understood as the higher objectives of Islamic law, has also been used in arguments supporting legal reform.

These objectives are often associated with the protection of life, religion, intellect, family and property, although their interpretation differs between scholars.

Reform-oriented arguments maintain that marriage laws should reflect the wellbeing of individuals and the responsibilities of modern states.

Such positions demonstrate that opposition to child marriage is not limited to secular or non-Muslim organisations.

It also exists within Islamic legal and ethical debates.

The significance of these discussions lies in their potential to challenge the claim that protecting children necessarily conflicts with religious belief.

Religious Freedom Cannot Justify Coercion

International human rights law recognises freedom of thought, conscience and religion as a fundamental right.

Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects the freedom to have or adopt a religion or belief of one's choice.

The United Nations Human Rights Committee has clarified that this freedom includes protection against coercion that would impair an individual's ability to choose.

This principle applies to conversion, religious education and the expression of belief.

It also applies regardless of the religion involved.

A person cannot legitimately be compelled to become Muslim, Christian, Hindu or a member of another religious community.

Nor can religious freedom be used as a justification for abduction or unlawful marriage.

The rights of children require additional consideration because of their age and vulnerability.

Parents and guardians have recognised responsibilities concerning a child's upbringing, but those responsibilities must be exercised consistently with the child's rights and evolving capacities.

The challenge for states is to respect religious freedom while ensuring that religious authority does not become a mechanism for coercion.

The Responsibility of the State

Governments have an obligation to protect individuals from violence, exploitation and discrimination.

These responsibilities do not disappear when harmful practices are defended through religious arguments.

A state may recognise religious marriage ceremonies while still requiring compliance with minimum-age legislation.

It may protect religious conversion while investigating allegations that a declaration was obtained through threats.

It may respect parental responsibilities while intervening when a child's welfare is endangered.

The central principle is that legal protection must apply equally.

A Muslim girl should be protected from forced marriage.

A Christian or Hindu girl should be protected from forced conversion and unlawful marriage.

An adult woman should be free to make her own religious and marital decisions without intimidation from relatives or religious authorities.

These protections are compatible when the law distinguishes genuine autonomy from coercion.

The difficulty arises when institutions fail to make that distinction or allow social and religious influence to interfere with impartial enforcement.

A Debate That Extends Beyond Pakistan

The relationship between religion, marriage law and children's rights is not confined to Pakistan.

In Afghanistan, restrictions on women's and girls' rights have intensified concerns about autonomy and protection.

In Iraq, debates over personal-status legislation have raised questions about the relationship between religious jurisprudence and statutory marriage protections.

In other Middle Eastern countries, marriage laws may include judicial exceptions or religious personal-status provisions that affect minimum-age requirements.

These legal systems differ considerably.

It would be misleading to present them as a single regional model.

Nevertheless, they share a recurring policy question: how should states reconcile religious legal traditions with contemporary standards concerning consent, equality and the protection of children?

The answer depends on constitutional arrangements, political institutions, judicial independence and the willingness of lawmakers to enforce effective safeguards.

Faith, Power and the Future of Child Protection

Religion remains a powerful influence on identity, family life and social relationships across much of the Middle East and South Asia.

For many people, faith provides moral guidance, community support and a framework for personal responsibility.

Yet religious authority can also become intertwined with unequal power relationships.

When historical interpretations are invoked to defend marriages involving minors, the rights and welfare of children must remain central to the legal discussion.

When a religious conversion follows an alleged abduction, authorities must establish whether the decision was genuinely voluntary.

When a family or religious leader claims authority over a girl's future, that authority must be examined in relation to her legal rights.

The debate is not simply between religion and secular law.

It also exists within religious communities, between competing interpretations of faith and between different understandings of justice, responsibility and human dignity.

The persistence of child marriage demonstrates why these debates have practical consequences.

Legal reform can establish clearer protections.

Education can expand opportunities.

Religious leaders can challenge harmful customs.

And independent institutions can ensure that allegations of coercion are investigated without discrimination.

But none of these measures will succeed if a child's safety remains secondary to the authority of adults.

What This Means

The question of child marriage cannot be resolved through historical arguments alone.

Religious traditions developed within particular social and legal circumstances, but contemporary governments must address the realities faced by children today.

Those realities include unequal power, interrupted education, early pregnancy, economic dependency and the possibility of violence or exploitation.

A society may respect religious freedom while prohibiting coercion.

It may recognise the importance of marriage within religious life while establishing minimum-age safeguards.

And it may preserve cultural identity without accepting practices that expose children to harm.

The decisive issue is whether institutions are willing to place the protection of vulnerable individuals above the interests of those who exercise authority.

Religious belief is a fundamental freedom. It must not become a justification for denying that freedom to someone else.

Chapter 6

Christian and Hindu Girls: A Particular Vulnerability

For Pakistan's Christian and Hindu minorities, allegations of abduction, forced religious conversion and marriage raise questions that extend far beyond individual family disputes.

They concern the position of religious minorities in a predominantly Muslim society, the unequal distribution of economic and political power, and the ability of vulnerable families to obtain protection from the state.

Christian and Hindu communities have been part of the Indian subcontinent's history for generations. Their members contribute to Pakistan's economy, culture and public life, yet sections of these populations continue to experience discrimination, poverty and social exclusion.

These disadvantages can become particularly significant when a girl disappears and her family alleges that she has been forced to convert to Islam and marry an adult man.

Human rights organisations have documented concerns about such cases, particularly in Punjab and Sindh.

Some involve allegations of kidnapping, intimidation or sexual violence. Others centre on disputed ages, marriage certificates or claims that a conversion was voluntary.

Not every allegation has been independently established, and not every interfaith marriage is coercive.

Nevertheless, the recurrence of documented concerns has prompted questions from Pakistani civil society organisations, international human rights bodies and United Nations experts.

At the centre of these concerns is a fundamental issue: whether a girl's religious identity, economic circumstances or family background affect the protection she receives when her rights may have been violated.

Religious Minorities in Pakistan: A Historical Perspective

The position of Christians and Hindus in Pakistan cannot be understood without considering the country's creation in 1947.

The partition of British India resulted in the establishment of Pakistan and India amid widespread communal violence and mass population movements.

Millions of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs crossed newly established borders, while many others remained in the countries where they already lived.

Pakistan retained substantial Hindu and Christian communities, particularly in the territories that now constitute Sindh and Punjab.

The country's founder, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, publicly articulated a vision of citizenship in which religious identity would not determine an individual's political rights.

However, Pakistan's subsequent constitutional and political development placed Islam at the centre of national identity.

The 1973 Constitution identifies Islam as the state religion while also recognising freedom of religion and equality before the law.

These provisions coexist with laws and institutions that give religion a significant role in public life.

For religious minorities, this has created a complex relationship with the state.

Many Christians and Hindus participate freely in education, business, politics and community life.

Others encounter discrimination, restrictions or difficulties securing equal treatment.

The experiences of minority communities are therefore neither uniform nor exclusively defined by persecution.

Yet documented patterns of discrimination remain important when examining allegations of forced conversion and marriage.

The Christian Minority: Faith, Identity and Economic Inequality

Pakistan's Christian population is concentrated particularly in Punjab, although Christian communities also exist in Sindh and other parts of the country.

Christians belong to different denominations, including Catholic and Protestant traditions.

Their communities include teachers, healthcare workers, entrepreneurs, professionals, agricultural labourers and public-sector employees.

However, historical patterns of social exclusion have contributed to economic disadvantage among sections of the Christian population.

Some Christian families are concentrated in low-paid occupations, including sanitation and other forms of insecure labour.

This reflects, in part, the persistence of caste-related hierarchies and occupational discrimination that predate the creation of Pakistan.

Economic disadvantage can affect access to education, legal assistance and political influence.

For families seeking justice after an alleged abduction, these inequalities may become decisive.

A household dependent on daily wages may struggle to finance repeated court appearances.

Parents may lose employment income while searching for a missing daughter.

Legal representation can be expensive, and proceedings may take place far from the family's home.

These circumstances do not establish that Christian girls are universally at risk or that every Muslim-Christian relationship is exploitative.

They do, however, help explain why some minority families face additional barriers when challenging alleged wrongdoing.

Hindu Communities in Sindh

Sindh is home to the largest concentration of Hindus in Pakistan.

Hindu communities have longstanding historical, linguistic and cultural connections to the region.

Many speak Sindhi and participate in local economic and social life alongside Muslim neighbours.

Religious traditions, festivals and places of worship remain important elements of community identity.

However, socioeconomic conditions differ considerably within the Hindu population.

Some families possess substantial commercial or professional resources.

Others, particularly those from historically marginalised caste communities, experience poverty, insecure employment and limited access to education.

Human rights organisations have raised concerns about alleged forced conversions involving Hindu girls in parts of Sindh.

In disputed cases, families may report that a daughter disappeared and subsequently reappeared in documents recording her conversion to Islam and marriage.

The circumstances surrounding these cases require careful investigation.

Some involve allegations of kidnapping or threats.

Others involve disputes about whether a young woman left voluntarily.

The distinction is essential because religious freedom protects an adult's right to change religion and marry independently.

However, where a minor is involved, child-protection legislation and safeguarding obligations must also be considered.

The Intersection of Gender, Religion and Poverty

A girl may experience several forms of disadvantage simultaneously.

Her age may limit her independence.

Her gender may expose her to restrictive social expectations.

Her family's poverty may reduce access to legal assistance.

Her minority religious identity may create additional barriers within local institutions.

These disadvantages can reinforce one another.

For example, a girl from a low-income household may work outside the home or travel long distances to attend school.

Limited transport, insecure working conditions or inadequate community protection may increase her exposure to exploitation.

If she subsequently disappears, her family may lack the resources required to conduct a prolonged search or pursue legal proceedings.

Where the alleged perpetrator has greater wealth or local influence, the imbalance can become particularly pronounced.

However, vulnerability should not be confused with inevitability.

Religious minority girls are not passive individuals without agency.

Many pursue education, employment and independent lives.

The concern is that structural inequalities can make it harder for some girls to exercise their rights or obtain protection when those rights are threatened.

When a Disappearance Becomes a Religious Dispute

In allegations involving forced conversion, the disappearance of a girl can rapidly become a dispute between religious communities.

A family may report that their daughter has been abducted.

Later, documents may be produced indicating that she converted to Islam and married a Muslim man.

The accused individual may argue that the girl left voluntarily.

The family may insist that she was underage or coerced.

At this point, religious identity can become central to public perceptions of the case.

Some supporters of the marriage may interpret the conversion as an expression of religious freedom.

Members of the girl's original community may regard the circumstances as evidence of intimidation or persecution.

The danger is that the dispute becomes a symbolic confrontation between religions rather than an investigation into the individual's safety and rights.

The legal questions remain specific.

Was the girl a minor?

Was she abducted?

Did she consent to the marriage?

Was the conversion voluntary?

Were documents accurately prepared?

Was she able to speak independently?

These questions cannot be answered solely through religious declarations or community pressure.

The Particular Significance of Forced Conversion

For a Christian or Hindu family, a daughter's alleged forced conversion may represent a profound violation of personal and religious freedom.

Religious identity often forms an important part of family life, cultural traditions and community belonging.

A coerced conversion can therefore affect relationships extending beyond the individual.

However, the rights of the girl must remain central.

An adult woman has the right to change her religion even when her family disagrees.

The family does not possess an unrestricted legal or moral entitlement to determine her beliefs.

The concern arises when conversion is obtained through threats, deception, confinement or other forms of coercion.

International human rights standards protect freedom of religion and prohibit coercion that impairs an individual's ability to choose.

In cases involving minors, authorities must also consider age, maturity and the possibility of exploitation.

A conversion certificate cannot independently establish that a declaration was voluntary.

Nor does it prove that a subsequent marriage complied with the law.

The responsibility of investigators and courts is to examine the circumstances rather than presume either coercion or consent.

The Influence of Religious and Community Leaders

Religious leaders can exercise considerable influence over community responses to disputed conversions.

In some cases, religious figures are involved in witnessing or documenting conversions and marriages.

Their participation may provide social legitimacy to the relationship.

Where allegations of coercion arise, this can complicate the position of the girl's family.

A religious declaration may be defended publicly even while questions remain about the girl's age or freedom.

However, religious authority does not replace criminal investigation or judicial scrutiny.

A religious leader cannot establish that an alleged kidnapping did not occur merely by confirming that a conversion ceremony took place.

Similarly, a marriage ceremony cannot determine whether statutory child-protection requirements were satisfied.

Religious institutions can also play a protective role.

Leaders who refuse to facilitate underage marriages, insist on reliable identification and cooperate with safeguarding authorities can help prevent abuse.

The critical issue is therefore how religious authority is exercised and whether it supports or undermines the protection of vulnerable individuals.

The Risk of Intimidation and Public Pressure

Disputes involving religious conversion can attract intense public attention.

Community organisations, religious leaders and local activists may become involved.

In some circumstances, families report pressure to withdraw allegations or accept a marriage.

The possibility of intimidation is especially concerning where religious accusations can provoke hostility.

Pakistan's blasphemy laws have been criticised by human rights organisations because allegations may expose individuals to severe legal consequences and, in some cases, threats or violence outside the judicial process.

These laws are distinct from the legal framework governing marriage and conversion.

Nevertheless, the wider climate surrounding religious accusations can influence how safely individuals challenge powerful interests.

Families may fear public confrontation.

Witnesses may be reluctant to provide statements.

Girls may become the focus of attention that threatens their privacy and safety.

Authorities therefore have a responsibility to prevent intimidation and ensure that legal proceedings are determined by evidence rather than religious mobilisation.

The Role of Christian and Hindu Organisations

Religious minority organisations play an important role in supporting families and documenting allegations.

Christian advocacy groups, Hindu community organisations and independent human rights bodies have raised concerns about forced conversions, discrimination and access to justice.

Their work may include helping families obtain legal representation, documenting cases, contacting authorities and advocating legislative reform.

Some organisations also provide education, social assistance and support for vulnerable communities.

However, advocacy reports require the same scrutiny as other sources.

An organisation may document an allegation before a court has established the facts.

Case numbers may differ between organisations because of variations in definitions, reporting methods and access to information.

For this reason, statistics concerning forced conversions should be presented with clear attribution and methodological explanation.

A reported case is not necessarily a judicially established offence.

Equally, the absence of a conviction does not automatically demonstrate that an allegation was false.

Reliable journalism must distinguish between allegations, documented evidence, judicial findings and unresolved disputes.

The Difficulty of Measuring the Problem

One of the greatest challenges in assessing forced conversion and marriage is the absence of comprehensive, consistently verified national data.

Civil society organisations have reported cases involving Christian and Hindu girls, but estimates differ.

Some reports combine allegations of forced conversion with cases involving disputed interfaith marriages.

Others focus specifically on minors or incidents involving alleged abduction.

These differences make direct comparisons difficult.

Underreporting is another concern.

Families may avoid contacting authorities because of fear, financial constraints or mistrust of institutions.

In other situations, a complaint may be registered without the circumstances being fully investigated.

Consequently, available figures should not be treated as a complete measurement of the problem.

Nor should all reported cases automatically be classified as proven forced conversions.

The most responsible approach is to identify the source of each estimate, explain what it measures and distinguish verified findings from allegations.

The absence of reliable national statistics does not remove the need for investigation.

It demonstrates the importance of better reporting systems and transparent official data.

Access to Police Protection

For a family whose daughter is missing, obtaining an effective police response is often the first priority.

The authorities must determine whether an offence may have occurred and whether immediate protective action is necessary.

Where a minor is involved, safeguarding obligations should be central to the investigation.

Human rights organisations have raised concerns about cases in which minority families encountered delays or difficulties obtaining effective police assistance.

Such problems can have serious consequences.

Delays may make it harder to locate the girl, preserve evidence or establish the circumstances surrounding her disappearance.

If marriage and conversion documents are subsequently produced, police may face competing accounts.

The existence of those documents should not automatically terminate an investigation into alleged kidnapping or coercion.

Police must establish the girl's age, investigate the original circumstances and assess whether any criminal offence occurred.

Equal protection requires that complaints be treated seriously regardless of the religion or social position of those involved.

When Families Turn to the Courts

Court proceedings may become the only available route for families seeking access to a missing daughter.

They may challenge the validity of marriage documents, dispute her age or seek judicial intervention to establish her whereabouts.

The proceedings can become particularly difficult when the girl states that she married voluntarily.

If she is an adult, her independent wishes must be respected.

If she is a minor, the court must consider the applicable child-marriage legislation and safeguarding requirements.

Where coercion is alleged, the circumstances surrounding her statement must also be examined.

Was she able to speak privately?

Did she have independent legal representation?

Was she separated from the person accused of coercing her?

Could she safely request protection?

These questions matter because fear and dependency can affect a person's ability to express genuine wishes.

However, courts must also avoid assuming that every woman who disagrees with her family is being manipulated.

The objective is to distinguish genuine autonomy from coercion while ensuring appropriate protection for children.

Why Age Documentation Matters

Reliable age documentation is particularly important in cases involving alleged child marriage.

A family may produce a birth certificate or school record indicating that a girl is under eighteen.

The opposing party may present documents recording a different age.

Such disputes can affect whether child-marriage legislation applies.

Pakistan's legal framework has historically differed between jurisdictions, making it essential to identify the law applicable at the time and place of the marriage.

Authorities must assess the authenticity and reliability of the available evidence.

Incomplete birth registration can complicate this process.

Medical age assessments may sometimes be considered, but they cannot always determine a precise chronological age.

The consequences of an incorrect determination can be serious.

A child mistakenly classified as an adult may lose access to safeguards specifically intended for minors.

Improved civil registration and consistent judicial procedures are therefore important elements of protection.

The Wider Consequences for Families

The consequences of an alleged forced conversion or marriage can extend across an entire family.

Parents may spend months or years seeking information about their daughter.

Legal proceedings can create financial hardship.

Public attention may expose relatives to hostility or intimidation.

Community relationships may become strained.

For families already experiencing poverty, the burden can be overwhelming.

However, the emotional suffering of relatives must not obscure the girl's own rights.

An adult woman is not legally required to return to her family simply because they oppose her marriage or conversion.

Where she is a minor or may have experienced coercion, independent protection and investigation are essential.

The purpose of legal intervention is not to restore family authority automatically.

It is to establish safety, lawful capacity and genuine freedom of choice.

The Psychological Impact of Religious Coercion

Religious identity can be deeply connected to personal history, family relationships and community belonging.

A person forced to adopt a religion may experience distress associated with the loss of autonomy and the pressure to reject previously held beliefs.

Where coercion is accompanied by confinement, violence or sexual exploitation, the consequences may be particularly severe.

Girls may experience fear, anxiety, isolation or difficulty trusting others.

Separation from family and community support can intensify these difficulties.

However, psychological responses vary.

Not every individual experiences the same consequences, and support must be tailored to personal circumstances.

Confidential counselling, healthcare, safe accommodation and independent legal assistance may be important components of recovery.

Protection should also respect the individual's own religious identity and choices.

A survivor should not be pressured to adopt or reject a religion as a condition of receiving assistance.

International Concern Over Minority Protection

United Nations experts have repeatedly raised concerns about allegations of forced conversion and marriage involving girls from Pakistan's religious minorities.

In April 2024, UN experts warned about reported failures to protect minority girls from abduction, trafficking, forced conversion and forced marriage.

They called for stronger action to investigate allegations and protect vulnerable individuals.

International religious freedom organisations have also documented concerns about discrimination and the treatment of religious minorities.

These findings have contributed to wider scrutiny of Pakistan's human rights obligations.

Pakistan is a party to international treaties that establish responsibilities concerning children's rights, freedom of religion and protection from discrimination.

The existence of these obligations does not mean that every allegation has been established.

It does mean that the state must maintain effective systems for preventing abuse, investigating complaints and ensuring equal protection.

What Effective Protection Would Require

Protecting Christian and Hindu girls requires measures that address both immediate risks and underlying inequalities.

Police must respond promptly to allegations of abduction.

Courts must assess age and consent using reliable evidence.

Children must have access to independent safeguarding procedures.

Families should be able to obtain legal assistance without discrimination.

Religious conversion must remain a voluntary personal decision.

Marriage registration systems must prevent inaccurate documentation from concealing unlawful arrangements.

Authorities must also protect individuals from intimidation, regardless of whether pressure comes from relatives, religious organisations or other influential actors.

Longer-term measures are equally important.

Education, economic opportunity and reliable civil registration can reduce vulnerability.

Community organisations can help individuals understand their rights and obtain support.

Religious leaders can contribute by rejecting coercion and cooperating with child-protection authorities.

None of these measures should depend on the religious identity of the girl concerned.

What This Means for Religious Freedom

The protection of religious minorities is not simply a question of allowing communities to maintain places of worship or celebrate religious festivals.

It also requires that individuals can exercise their beliefs without intimidation and receive equal treatment from public institutions.

A Christian girl must be protected from forced conversion.

A Hindu girl must be protected from unlawful marriage.

A Muslim girl must receive the same protection against coercion and exploitation.

An adult woman must be free to change her religion and marry independently, even when her family objects.

These rights are not mutually exclusive.

They are expressions of the same principle: that personal freedom cannot be determined by the power or religious identity of others.

Beyond Religious Identity

The experiences of Christian and Hindu girls in Pakistan reveal how religious minority status can interact with gender inequality, poverty and institutional weakness.

Their vulnerability cannot be explained through religion alone.

Nor can the religious dimension be dismissed when allegations involve conversion, community pressure and unequal access to justice.

The challenge is to recognise both realities.

Some girls face risks because they are young and economically dependent.

Others face additional barriers because they belong to communities with limited social or political influence.

When these disadvantages overlap, obtaining protection can become particularly difficult.

The responsibility of the state is to ensure that the law does not reinforce those inequalities.

A girl's safety should not depend on whether her family belongs to the majority religion.

Her ability to obtain justice should not depend on wealth or political connections.

And her freedom to believe, refuse or change religion should not be controlled through intimidation.

The true measure of religious freedom is not how a society protects the beliefs of its majority, but whether those with the least power can exercise the same rights without fear.

Chapter 7

Afghanistan: Marriage Under Taliban Rule

For millions of girls in Afghanistan, the possibility of choosing their own future has become increasingly restricted.

Since the Taliban returned to power in August 2021, the country's de facto authorities have imposed sweeping limitations on women's and girls' education, employment, freedom of movement and participation in public life.

These restrictions have consequences that extend far beyond classrooms and workplaces. They influence family decisions, economic security, access to healthcare and the ability of women and girls to resist unwanted marriages.

Child marriage was already a serious problem in Afghanistan before the Taliban's return. Decades of conflict, poverty, displacement and entrenched gender inequalities had left many girls vulnerable to early or forced marriage.

Under Taliban rule, however, the environment in which families make these decisions has changed dramatically.

When girls cannot continue their education, when women face severe restrictions on employment and when households struggle to survive, marriage may increasingly be viewed as one of the few remaining options.

The consequences are particularly serious for adolescent girls who have little control over family decisions.

In October 2026, UNICEF reported that 28.7 per cent of Afghan women aged 20–24 had married before turning eighteen, according to the Afghanistan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey conducted in 2022–23. In some parts of the country, the survey found that the proportion reached approximately one in two.

These figures demonstrate the scale of child marriage, although they do not establish how many marriages involved abduction, direct coercion or Taliban officials.

Understanding Afghanistan's situation requires examining the interaction between longstanding social practices and the increasingly restrictive system of government established since 2021.

Afghanistan Before the Taliban's Return

Child marriage in Afghanistan did not begin with the Taliban.

For generations, marriage practices have been influenced by local customs, economic circumstances, family structures and interpretations of religious law.

Afghanistan is ethnically and culturally diverse. Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkmen and other communities have different histories and social traditions.

Marriage practices vary between provinces, rural and urban communities, and individual families.

In some areas, arranged marriages have traditionally played an important role in strengthening relationships between families.

An arranged marriage, however, is not necessarily a forced marriage. The distinction depends on whether the individuals involved are legally capable of marrying and genuinely free to accept or refuse.

Problems arise when family authority overrides personal choice or when children are married before reaching adulthood.

Before August 2021, Afghanistan had legislation addressing marriage age and violence against women, although implementation was inconsistent.

Under the former Civil Code, the ordinary minimum marriage age was sixteen for girls and eighteen for boys, with limited provisions allowing girls to marry at fifteen under specified conditions.

These rules fell short of the international standard of eighteen for both sexes.

Enforcement was also weakened by incomplete birth registration, limited access to courts and the influence of customary dispute-resolution systems.

Some families continued to arrange marriages outside formal legal procedures.

The existence of legislation therefore did not guarantee protection.

Nevertheless, women and girls had access to educational and professional opportunities that have since been substantially curtailed.

The Return of the Taliban in August 2021

The Taliban regained control of Kabul on 15 August 2021 following the collapse of the internationally supported Afghan government.

Their return marked a profound political and social transformation.

The Taliban established a de facto administration based on their interpretation of Islamic law, concentrating significant authority in the movement's leadership.

Initially, Taliban representatives made public statements suggesting that women's rights would be respected within their understanding of Sharia.

However, successive restrictions substantially reduced women's participation in public life.

Girls were prevented from attending formal secondary education beyond Grade 6.

Women were subsequently barred from universities.

Restrictions were imposed on many forms of female employment, including work for non-governmental organisations and international institutions, subject to limited exceptions and changing implementation.

Women's freedom of movement and access to public spaces were also restricted.

These measures have been criticised by United Nations bodies and international human rights organisations as systematic discrimination against women and girls.

The restrictions are especially relevant to child marriage because they reduce the educational, economic and social alternatives available to adolescent girls.

A girl who cannot attend secondary school may face growing pressure to assume domestic responsibilities.

A young woman unable to work may become financially dependent on male relatives.

And a family facing poverty may increasingly view marriage as a practical response to economic insecurity.

When Education Is Taken Away

Education is one of the strongest protective factors against child marriage.

It gives girls opportunities to develop knowledge, professional skills and greater independence.

It also provides social networks and contact with teachers and other adults who may recognise signs of exploitation.

In Afghanistan, these opportunities have been severely restricted.

According to UNICEF, more than 2.6 million girls had been denied secondary education during the five years following the Taliban's return to power.

Afghanistan remains the only country where girls and women are effectively excluded from both secondary and higher education as a matter of national policy.

The consequences extend beyond lost academic qualifications.

When education becomes inaccessible, the perceived benefits of keeping a daughter unmarried may diminish in households already facing financial pressure.

Families may believe that marriage offers greater security than an uncertain future without schooling or employment.

Research published by ODI in 2024 identified a relationship between Taliban restrictions, economic insecurity and changing social attitudes towards marriage age.

The study found evidence that the closure of educational and employment opportunities was contributing to pressures encouraging earlier marriage.

These findings do not mean that every family responds to the restrictions in the same way.

Many Afghan parents continue to oppose child marriage and seek educational opportunities for their daughters.

Nevertheless, removing access to education weakens one of the most important mechanisms through which girls can build independent futures.

Poverty and the Pressure to Marry

Afghanistan has experienced decades of conflict, political instability and economic hardship.

The collapse of the former government in 2021 was followed by severe economic disruption, changes in international financial assistance and restrictions affecting the banking and public sectors.

Natural disasters, food insecurity and displacement have added to the country's difficulties.

For households struggling to obtain sufficient food or income, marriage can become entangled with economic survival.

Some families may perceive marriage as a way to reduce the number of dependants in the household.

Others may hope that a financially secure husband will provide food, accommodation or protection for their daughter.

In certain customary arrangements, financial transfers associated with marriage can create additional pressures.

However, these practices differ between communities, and financial arrangements should not automatically be interpreted as the sale of a child.

The concern arises when economic desperation removes meaningful choice or leads adults to arrange marriages that expose girls to exploitation.

International organisations have documented cases in which severe financial hardship contributed to early marriage decisions.

Such circumstances illustrate the relationship between poverty and child protection.

A family may believe it is securing a daughter's future while placing her in a relationship that restricts her independence and exposes her to new risks.

Addressing the problem therefore requires both legal safeguards and economic assistance.

The Taliban's 2021 Decree Against Forced Marriage

One of the most important contradictions in the Taliban's approach to women's rights concerns forced marriage.

In December 2021, Taliban leader Hibatullah Akhundzada issued a decree addressing certain rights of women.

The decree stated that women should not be forced into marriage and included provisions concerning widows and inheritance.

It also opposed practices in which women were treated as property or transferred through certain customary arrangements.

On its face, the decree recognised an important principle: marriage should not be imposed on a woman against her will.

However, international observers identified serious limitations.

The decree did not establish a clear minimum marriage age.

It also lacked sufficiently defined mechanisms for ensuring that victims could obtain protection.

The absence of a minimum age is particularly significant.

A prohibition on forced marriage does not necessarily prevent child marriage if the legal system continues to permit arrangements involving minors.

A child may appear to agree to marriage while remaining subject to family authority, economic dependency or pressure from adults.

The distinction between formal consent and meaningful freedom is therefore essential.

The Taliban's decree also raised questions about enforcement.

Without accessible courts, independent legal assistance and effective safeguarding institutions, a formal prohibition may provide limited protection to those who need it most.

The 2026 Decree and New Concerns About Child Marriage

Developments in 2026 further intensified concerns about the legal position of Afghan girls.

In April 2026, the Taliban's de facto Ministry of Justice issued a decree addressing the separation of spouses.

United Nations human rights experts subsequently warned that provisions within the decree could legitimise child marriage and make it exceptionally difficult for women and girls to leave abusive relationships.

According to the experts' assessment, certain provisions contemplate the possibility of a child seeking separation after reaching puberty.

This raises a fundamental concern.

Rather than preventing marriage before adulthood, the framework appears to recognise circumstances in which a girl may already have been married as a child.

The experts also warned that the decree could increase the authority of guardians and restrict women's ability to obtain separation.

These concerns are particularly serious in cases involving domestic violence or coercion.

A girl who has been married against her will may depend on the same family members or institutions whose decisions she wishes to challenge.

If legal procedures require extensive proof or provide limited grounds for separation, escaping an abusive marriage may become extremely difficult.

The United Nations experts' conclusions represent a legal and human rights assessment of the decree. They should be distinguished from verified findings about how every provision has been implemented in individual cases.

Nevertheless, the decree illustrates the tension between the Taliban's earlier public opposition to forced marriage and subsequent rules that may weaken protection for girls.

The Role of Religious Interpretation

The Taliban justify many of their policies through their interpretation of Islamic law.

Their approach is shaped by the movement's religious ideology and its understanding of social order, gender roles and moral conduct.

However, the Taliban's interpretation does not represent the entirety of Islamic thought.

Muslim-majority countries maintain widely differing policies on girls' education, women's employment and marriage.

Many Muslim scholars and religious institutions support female education and reject coercion in marriage.

Islamic legal traditions also contain principles concerning consent, welfare and the prevention of harm, although scholars disagree about their interpretation and application.

The Taliban's restrictions on girls' education have therefore generated criticism not only from Western governments and international organisations but also from Muslim voices.

This distinction is important.

The question is not whether Islam inevitably requires restrictions on women's rights.

It is how a particular political movement interprets religious authority and uses state power to enforce that interpretation.

In Afghanistan, the consequences of those decisions are experienced by millions of girls whose educational and professional opportunities have been removed.

Marriage as a Means of Social Control

Marriage can become a mechanism of control when girls lack the ability to refuse, leave or negotiate the conditions of a relationship.

In a society where women's movement and employment are restricted, dependence on male relatives may increase.

This can affect decisions concerning marriage.

A girl who cannot continue school or earn an income may have little practical independence.

Her family may control her accommodation, financial support and access to the outside world.

If she is pressured into marriage, she may struggle to obtain assistance.

The situation becomes particularly concerning when the prospective husband is substantially older.

Differences in age, resources and social authority may create an unequal relationship in which the girl has limited bargaining power.

These risks are not unique to Afghanistan.

However, Taliban restrictions can intensify them by limiting the institutions and opportunities that might otherwise provide support.

Marriage should not be understood as inherently coercive.

Many Afghan marriages involve adults who freely choose their partners.

The human rights concern arises when legal and social conditions prevent girls and women from making meaningful decisions about their own lives.

Allegations Involving Taliban Members

Reports published after the Taliban's return to power have included allegations involving Taliban members seeking or forcing marriages with women and girls.

Some families reportedly feared that daughters could be targeted by armed or influential men.

Such fears may themselves affect marriage decisions, even when an individual threat has not been independently established.

Research by ODI identified accounts of families considering earlier marriage partly because of concerns about coercion by Taliban figures.

Earlier human rights reporting also described allegations of forced marriage involving Taliban members.

These accounts require careful interpretation.

It would be inaccurate to claim that every Taliban official participates in such practices or that all reported allegations have been independently verified.

Nor is there sufficiently reliable nationwide evidence to determine the full scale of forced marriages involving Taliban members.

Nevertheless, the possibility of abuse by individuals connected to the authorities raises serious concerns about accountability.

Where the alleged perpetrator possesses political or armed power, victims may fear retaliation.

Families may doubt whether local institutions will investigate impartially.

The absence of independent oversight can make allegations particularly difficult to examine.

Traditional Practices: Baad and the Settlement of Disputes

Certain customary practices have historically contributed to forced marriage in Afghanistan.

One example is baad, a practice in which a girl or woman may be transferred in marriage to another family as part of a settlement following a dispute or offence.

Such arrangements have been documented in some communities, although their prevalence varies and they should not be presented as representative of Afghan society generally.

The central concern is that the girl may be treated as an instrument for resolving a conflict between adults.

Her wishes and welfare can become secondary to the interests of families or community leaders.

The Taliban's December 2021 decree opposed forced marriage and certain practices involving the exchange of women.

However, prohibiting a practice formally does not establish that it has disappeared.

Effective prevention requires enforcement, community engagement and accessible remedies for those at risk.

It also requires distinguishing customary practices from religious obligations.

A tradition may be defended through religious language without being universally accepted as a requirement of Islam.

Understanding these differences is essential to identifying who exercises power and how harmful arrangements can be challenged.

The Collapse of Protection Mechanisms

Before August 2021, Afghanistan had developed institutions intended to address violence against women, although their reach and effectiveness were uneven.

These included specialised legal services, women's protection facilities and programmes supported by Afghan civil society organisations.

Following the Taliban's return, many of these mechanisms were dismantled, closed or substantially restricted.

Women working in the justice sector faced exclusion and insecurity.

Organisations providing support to women and girls encountered increasing operational difficulties.

For someone seeking protection from forced marriage, the consequences can be severe.

A girl may have no accessible shelter.

She may struggle to find independent legal representation.

Restrictions on movement may prevent her from travelling safely to obtain assistance.

If she fears violence from relatives or a husband, reporting the situation may expose her to additional danger.

The absence of independent protection services can make formal legal rights difficult to exercise.

A prohibition on forced marriage has limited practical value when victims cannot safely report violations or obtain an effective remedy.

When Families Seek Justice

In Afghanistan, the ability to challenge an unwanted marriage depends heavily on local circumstances, access to institutions and the position of the individuals involved.

A family may seek assistance from community elders, religious authorities or the de facto justice system.

However, informal dispute-resolution mechanisms do not always provide independent representation for girls.

Where family members arranged the marriage, they may also control whether a complaint is pursued.

A minor may be unable to approach authorities without adult assistance.

The situation becomes more complicated when a husband or guardian possesses influence within the community.

International observers have expressed concern about the limited availability of independent legal safeguards under Taliban rule.

Women and girls may face particular barriers because of restrictions on movement, employment and public participation.

For a girl seeking to leave a marriage, the practical question may be whether any institution can protect her after she challenges the decision of an adult.

Without safe accommodation and confidential legal assistance, even a successful complaint may not guarantee lasting security.

The Particular Position of Religious and Ethnic Minorities

Afghanistan's religious and ethnic diversity adds another dimension to the issue.

The country is predominantly Muslim, with Sunni Muslims forming the majority and Shia communities representing an important minority.

Hazara communities, many of whom are Shia, have faced longstanding discrimination and violence.

Afghanistan also has small Sikh, Hindu and other religious minority populations, although many members of these communities have left the country over successive decades.

Religious and ethnic minorities may experience additional barriers to protection, depending on local circumstances.

However, the pattern of alleged forced conversions involving Christian and Hindu girls in Pakistan should not be assumed to operate identically in Afghanistan.

The available evidence points to different national histories, population structures and forms of discrimination.

In Afghanistan, restrictions affecting women and girls apply broadly, while particular minority communities may face additional risks.

Any allegation of forced marriage, abduction or religious coercion must therefore be assessed according to the evidence and circumstances of the individual case.

The Health Consequences of Early Marriage

Early marriage can have serious consequences for girls' physical and reproductive health.

Marriage during adolescence may lead to pregnancy before a girl has completed her physical development.

Young mothers can face increased risks of pregnancy and childbirth complications.

The risks may be particularly severe where healthcare is inaccessible or where women have limited control over reproductive decisions.

Afghanistan's healthcare system faces substantial challenges, including shortages of trained personnel, financial constraints and difficulties providing services in remote areas.

Restrictions on women's education and employment create additional long-term risks.

In April 2026, UNICEF warned that Afghanistan could lose the contribution of thousands of potential female teachers and healthcare workers by 2030 if current restrictions continued.

The implications for maternal healthcare are particularly concerning.

In communities where women face restrictions on receiving care from male professionals, a shortage of female healthcare workers can make treatment more difficult to obtain.

The relationship between child marriage and healthcare is therefore not limited to individual pregnancies.

It also involves the capacity of the country's institutions to provide essential services.

The Psychological Consequences of Lost Freedom

A girl who is prevented from attending school may experience isolation, frustration and uncertainty about her future.

If she is subsequently pressured into marriage, those experiences may intensify.

Marriage can involve separation from friends, new domestic responsibilities and dependence on an unfamiliar household.

Where coercion or violence occurs, the psychological consequences may be substantial.

Girls may experience anxiety, fear, depression or trauma-related symptoms.

However, psychological outcomes vary, and it would be inaccurate to assume that every married adolescent experiences the same difficulties.

The wider environment also matters.

Restrictions on movement, education and employment can reduce access to social support.

A girl may have fewer opportunities to seek help outside her family.

Mental health services may be limited, particularly in rural or economically disadvantaged communities.

Effective protection must therefore include psychosocial support alongside legal and medical assistance.

Afghan Women and Girls Who Continue to Resist

Despite severe restrictions, Afghan women and girls have continued to advocate for education, employment and personal freedom.

Some have participated in protests despite the risk of detention or intimidation.

Others have sought alternative forms of education, including community-based learning and remote study where feasible.

Families, teachers and local organisations have also attempted to preserve educational opportunities.

These efforts demonstrate that Afghan society is not united behind the Taliban's restrictions.

Many Afghans continue to regard education as essential to their daughters' futures.

Opposition to child marriage also exists within Afghan communities.

Parents, educators, religious figures and civil society advocates have challenged practices that expose girls to harm.

Their work is important because sustainable reform cannot depend exclusively on external pressure.

It also requires the participation of people within affected communities who understand local circumstances and can support practical alternatives.

The International Community's Dilemma

International organisations face difficult choices in Afghanistan.

Humanitarian assistance remains essential for millions of people experiencing poverty, food insecurity and displacement.

At the same time, Taliban restrictions on women's employment and public participation can obstruct the delivery of assistance.

Female humanitarian workers are particularly important in communities where social restrictions limit contact between women and unrelated men.

When women cannot participate fully in aid delivery, vulnerable girls and mothers may become harder to reach.

International organisations must therefore balance immediate humanitarian needs with efforts to defend fundamental rights.

Ending child marriage requires more than public condemnation.

It requires access to education, family support, healthcare, legal protection and reliable information.

Humanitarian programmes can reduce some of the economic pressures associated with early marriage.

However, their effectiveness is constrained when national policies continue to exclude girls from education and women from many forms of employment.

What Must Change

Protecting Afghan girls requires action that addresses both the immediate dangers of forced marriage and the wider restrictions shaping their lives.

The restoration of secondary and higher education for girls and women is essential.

Girls must have opportunities to develop skills, pursue employment and make informed decisions about their futures.

Marriage laws must provide clear and enforceable protection against child marriage and coercion.

Girls and women must be able to report abuse without fear of retaliation.

Independent legal assistance and safe accommodation are necessary for those seeking protection.

Healthcare services must remain accessible, including reproductive and maternal healthcare.

Economic assistance can help reduce the pressures that lead some families to consider early marriage.

Religious and community leaders can contribute by challenging coercion and supporting girls' education.

Yet these measures depend on the willingness of the authorities to recognise women and girls as individuals with rights rather than as dependants whose lives are determined by male guardians.

What This Means

Afghanistan demonstrates how child marriage can become more difficult to prevent when girls lose access to education, employment opportunities and independent protection.

The problem is not solely the existence of traditional marriage practices.

It is the interaction between those practices and a political system that restricts women's participation in society.

The Taliban's 2021 decree opposing forced marriage illustrates that formal recognition of consent is possible within the movement's stated religious framework.

However, the absence of clear minimum-age safeguards and subsequent restrictions raise serious questions about whether that principle is effectively protected.

The concerns surrounding the 2026 separation decree make those questions more urgent.

A girl cannot exercise meaningful freedom when she lacks realistic alternatives to marriage.

Nor can she rely on legal protection if the institutions responsible for safeguarding her rights are inaccessible or unwilling to act independently.

Afghanistan's experience therefore illustrates a wider principle relevant to this investigation: protecting girls from forced marriage requires protecting their ability to make decisions about education, work, relationships and personal safety.

Conclusion: A Future Decided by Others

For many Afghan girls, the loss of educational opportunities has changed the course of their lives.

Some remain at home while their brothers continue to school.

Others face growing pressure to marry in an environment where employment and financial independence appear increasingly unattainable.

For girls subjected to coercion, the consequences can extend into adulthood.

Marriage may determine where they live, whether they continue learning, when they become mothers and whether they can seek help if they experience abuse.

These outcomes are not inevitable consequences of Afghan culture or Islamic belief.

They reflect the interaction of longstanding inequalities, economic hardship and political decisions that have restricted women's and girls' rights.

Afghanistan's future will depend partly on whether its girls are allowed to become educated, independent participants in society.

When a government closes the classroom, restricts the workplace and weakens access to legal protection, marriage can cease to be one choice among many. For vulnerable girls, it may become a future decided almost entirely by others.

Chapter 8

Syria and Iraq: Marriage, Conflict and Displacement

Across Syria and Iraq, years of conflict have transformed the circumstances in which families make decisions about marriage, education and the protection of their children.

War has destroyed homes, disrupted schooling, weakened public institutions and forced millions of people to leave their communities. For girls already facing poverty or restrictive social expectations, displacement can create additional vulnerabilities.

Some families arrange marriages for adolescent daughters because they believe an older husband can provide financial security or protection. Others face pressure from relatives, community expectations or circumstances in which education and employment have become increasingly inaccessible.

Yet the experiences of girls in Syria and Iraq cannot be explained through poverty and displacement alone.

During the territorial expansion of the Islamic State group, commonly known as ISIS or ISIL, women and girls from religious minorities were subjected to systematic atrocities. Yazidi women and girls were abducted, enslaved, sexually assaulted and forcibly transferred across borders.

ISIS used its extremist religious ideology to justify crimes that United Nations investigators have characterised as genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

These atrocities were fundamentally different from the broader phenomenon of child marriage among conflict-affected families.

They involved organised persecution, captivity and sexual slavery, rather than marriages arising primarily from economic insecurity or family pressure.

Nevertheless, both situations expose the dangers faced by girls when armed conflict destroys effective protection and places extraordinary power in the hands of adults, armed groups or other authorities.

Understanding Syria and Iraq requires examining these distinct experiences without reducing them to a single explanation.

Before the Wars: Marriage, Family and Social Expectations

Child marriage existed in parts of Syria and Iraq before the conflicts that reshaped both countries.

Marriage traditions varied between rural and urban communities, religious groups and socioeconomic backgrounds.

In some families, marriage during adolescence was considered socially acceptable, particularly where educational opportunities were limited.

In others, girls continued their education, entered professional careers and married as adults.

It would therefore be inaccurate to suggest that early marriage was universal or that either society had a single approach to women's rights.

Family arrangements also differed considerably.

An arranged marriage could involve adults making introductions or negotiating practical arrangements while leaving the prospective spouses free to accept or refuse.

A forced marriage, by contrast, occurs when genuine consent is absent.

Child marriage raises an additional concern because individuals under eighteen may lack the legal capacity and independence necessary to make such a consequential decision.

The distinction matters when examining how conflict has affected marriage practices.

War did not create every harmful tradition.

However, it intensified economic hardship, weakened institutions and reduced the alternatives available to vulnerable girls.

Syria: How War Changed Family Life

The Syrian conflict began in 2011, following protests against the government of President Bashar al-Assad and the violent response of state authorities.

What followed was a prolonged and devastating conflict involving government forces, opposition groups, extremist organisations and foreign powers.

The political and military landscape changed repeatedly, including with the fall of Assad's government in December 2024.

Despite subsequent political changes, the consequences of years of conflict remained deeply embedded in Syrian society.

Families lost homes, livelihoods and access to essential services.

Schools were damaged, destroyed or converted for other purposes.

Healthcare systems came under enormous pressure.

Large numbers of Syrians became internally displaced or sought refuge in neighbouring countries.

For adolescent girls, displacement often meant losing the stability provided by familiar schools, relatives and communities.

Some families found themselves living in overcrowded accommodation or informal settlements.

Others depended on humanitarian assistance while struggling to secure employment.

These circumstances created conditions in which marriage could appear to offer protection or financial stability.

However, the belief that marriage provides security does not mean that it actually protects a girl from exploitation.

Marriage as a Response to Insecurity

Families affected by conflict may face difficult decisions about their children's futures.

Where accommodation is insecure and household income is insufficient, parents may consider marriage as a way to reduce financial pressure.

Some believe that an older husband with an established income can provide stability.

Others fear harassment or sexual violence and regard marriage as a form of protection.

Such decisions can be influenced by genuine concern for a daughter's safety.

Nevertheless, the consequences may be harmful.

A girl who marries early may lose access to education.

She may become financially dependent on her husband.

She may face pressure to become pregnant before reaching adulthood.

If the relationship becomes abusive, leaving can be particularly difficult.

The circumstances are especially concerning when the prospective husband is substantially older.

Differences in age, financial resources and social authority may create a relationship in which the girl has limited bargaining power.

The central question is therefore not simply why a family considers marriage, but whether the girl has meaningful alternatives and the freedom to make decisions about her future.

Syrian Refugee Girls in Lebanon and Jordan

The consequences of Syria's conflict have extended far beyond its borders.

Lebanon and Jordan have hosted large Syrian refugee populations, placing additional pressure on housing, education, healthcare and employment systems.

Research among Syrian refugee communities has documented child marriage as an important protection concern.

A peer-reviewed study involving Syrian refugees in southern Lebanon found substantial levels of marriage before eighteen among the girls and women studied.

However, the researchers also found that child marriage had been common among older cohorts who had grown up before the war.

This is an important finding.

It challenges the assumption that displacement alone created the practice.

Instead, the evidence suggests that child marriage results from interacting factors, including existing social norms, poverty, insecurity and reduced opportunities.

Refugee families are not a uniform population.

Many actively oppose early marriage and prioritise their daughters' education.

Others face pressures that make continued schooling or financial independence difficult.

The purpose of humanitarian protection is to address those pressures without portraying displaced families as inherently abusive or incapable of making responsible decisions.

Life in Refugee Camps and Informal Settlements

Displacement can create particular risks for adolescent girls.

Families may live in temporary accommodation with limited privacy.

Sanitation facilities may be inadequate.

Girls may have to travel long distances to attend school or obtain essential services.

Parents may worry about harassment or insecurity.

These concerns can lead families to restrict girls' movements.

In some circumstances, marriage may be viewed as a way to transfer responsibility for a daughter's safety to a husband.

Yet early marriage can replace one form of vulnerability with another.

A girl may move into a household where she has little independence or support.

She may be expected to perform domestic work, care for relatives or become pregnant.

If violence occurs, she may struggle to obtain assistance because of displacement, financial dependence or unfamiliarity with local institutions.

Humanitarian organisations therefore increasingly recognise child marriage as an issue requiring coordinated protection, education, healthcare and economic support.

Simply informing families about the risks is unlikely to be sufficient if the conditions creating those risks remain unchanged.

When Education Disappears

Education can provide stability during humanitarian crises.

For displaced girls, attending school offers more than academic learning.

It can restore daily routines, create friendships and provide contact with teachers who may recognise signs of distress or exploitation.

However, conflict and displacement frequently interrupt education.

Families may be unable to afford transport, school materials or associated expenses.

Children may need to contribute to household income.

Adolescent girls may face additional restrictions because of safety concerns or expectations concerning domestic responsibilities.

Once a girl leaves school, returning can become increasingly difficult.

Marriage may then be perceived as the next expected stage of life.

The consequences can extend into adulthood.

Girls who marry early may have fewer opportunities to complete secondary education or obtain employment.

Their economic dependence may increase, making it harder to challenge unequal relationships.

For this reason, preventing child marriage requires keeping education accessible even during prolonged displacement.

Iraq: Conflict and the Breakdown of Protection

Iraq has experienced successive periods of war, political instability, sectarian violence and displacement.

The consequences of the 2003 invasion, subsequent insurgency and the rise of ISIS placed enormous pressure on communities and state institutions.

When ISIS captured Mosul in June 2014 and expanded its control over parts of northern and western Iraq, civilians faced severe violence and persecution.

Religious and ethnic minorities were particularly vulnerable.

The group's occupation also disrupted schools, healthcare, local administration and legal protection.

Families fled their homes, often with few possessions.

Some became displaced within Iraq, while others sought refuge abroad.

These conditions contributed to wider concerns about child marriage, gender-based violence and exploitation.

However, the experiences of displaced Iraqi girls differed significantly depending on their location, community, family circumstances and exposure to armed groups.

The most extreme abuses occurred where ISIS deliberately targeted populations for enslavement, forced conversion and sexual violence.

The Yazidis: A Religious Minority Targeted for Destruction

The Yazidis are a distinct religious community with historical roots in northern Iraq and neighbouring regions.

Their faith has its own traditions, sacred texts, rituals and religious identity.

Many Yazidis lived in the Sinjar region of northern Iraq before the ISIS offensive of August 2014.

On 3 August 2014, ISIS launched a coordinated attack against Yazidi communities in Sinjar.

Thousands of people fled towards Mount Sinjar.

Others were captured or killed.

ISIS separated many men and older boys from women and children.

Men and boys were subjected to executions and other forms of violence.

Women and girls were abducted and transferred into captivity.

The group's actions were not simply a consequence of general wartime disorder.

United Nations investigators established that ISIS deliberately targeted the Yazidis as a religious group.

In 2016, the United Nations Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Syria concluded that ISIS was committing genocide against the Yazidis.

Subsequent investigations by the United Nations Investigative Team to Promote Accountability for Crimes Committed by Da'esh/ISIL, known as UNITAD, documented extensive evidence of international crimes.

In September 2024, UNITAD published detailed findings supporting the conclusion that ISIS had committed genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes against the Yazidi community.

The Abduction of Yazidi Women and Girls

The abduction of Yazidi women and girls formed part of ISIS's organised campaign of persecution.

Captives were separated from relatives and transported to locations in Iraq and Syria.

Some were transferred repeatedly between ISIS members.

Women and girls were subjected to sexual slavery, rape, forced marriage, forced religious conversion and other forms of abuse.

United Nations investigators documented how ISIS developed ideological justifications and administrative practices for the enslavement of Yazidi women and girls.

These abuses were not isolated acts committed without organisational involvement.

They formed part of a systematic pattern of persecution.

Age and gender influenced how victims were treated.

Women and adolescent girls were particularly exposed to sexual violence and enslavement.

Children were also subjected to indoctrination, separation from relatives and other forms of exploitation.

The crimes demonstrate how an armed organisation can use religious identity to determine who is targeted while using gender and age to determine the form of abuse inflicted.

Sexual Slavery Was Not Marriage

One of the most important distinctions in examining ISIS atrocities concerns the use of religious language to describe sexual slavery.

ISIS sometimes presented its treatment of captive women and girls through terminology drawn from its extremist interpretation of religious law.

It also used claims of marriage to legitimise forced sexual relationships.

However, captivity, ownership claims and sexual violence cannot be treated as consensual marriage.

A woman or girl who has been abducted and held by an armed organisation is not exercising free choice simply because a religious ceremony or declaration is imposed.

The absence of consent is fundamental.

International criminal law recognises sexual slavery, rape, enslavement and other forms of sexual violence as serious crimes.

Depending on the circumstances, these acts may constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or components of genocide.

UNITAD documented evidence that ISIS used sexual violence as part of its campaign against the Yazidis.

The legal characterisation of these crimes matters because describing them merely as forced marriages risks understating their severity.

The victims were not simply placed in unwanted relationships.

They were subjected to organised captivity and exploitation.

Forced Conversion as an Instrument of Persecution

Religion played a central role in ISIS's treatment of the Yazidis.

The group regarded Yazidi religious identity as incompatible with its extremist ideology.

Captives were subjected to attempts to erase or replace their religious beliefs.

Forced conversion formed part of this broader campaign.

For survivors, the consequences extended beyond religious practice.

Captivity often involved separation from family, loss of community connections and pressure to abandon an identity that ISIS had specifically targeted for destruction.

The religious dimension was therefore inseparable from the group's genocidal intent.

However, ISIS's ideology must not be confused with the beliefs of Muslims generally.

Muslim communities, religious leaders and governments have condemned ISIS and its atrocities.

ISIS's actions reflected the ideology and conduct of a particular extremist organisation.

The distinction is essential to understanding responsibility accurately.

The crimes were committed by identifiable perpetrators within an organised movement, not by an entire religious population.

Christian Communities Under ISIS

Christian communities in Iraq and Syria also experienced persecution under ISIS.

The group threatened religious minorities, seized property, destroyed or damaged religious sites and imposed discriminatory conditions on communities under its control.

In some areas, Christians were confronted with demands to convert, pay a discriminatory religious tax or leave.

Those who resisted faced serious threats.

UNITAD documented crimes against Christian communities, including persecution and other conduct amounting to international crimes.

However, the pattern of violence against Christians was not identical to the systematic campaign of genocide directed against the Yazidis.

Different communities were subjected to different policies and forms of abuse.

Recognising these distinctions does not diminish the suffering of any group.

It is necessary for accurate historical and legal analysis.

The experience of Christians under ISIS also demonstrates how religious persecution can involve displacement, economic dispossession and the destruction of community life, even when the specific methods differ from those used against other minorities.

Other Communities Targeted by ISIS

ISIS also persecuted Shia Muslims, including Shia Turkmen communities, and other groups it considered religiously unacceptable.

UNITAD documented sexual and gender-based crimes involving victims from several communities.

Its findings included forced marriages, sexual violence and the separation of children from their families.

These crimes reflected ISIS's extremist ideology and its use of coercion to enforce religious and social control.

The experiences of victims varied according to religion, gender, age and the circumstances of captivity.

This broader pattern is important because it demonstrates that ISIS's violence cannot be understood as a conflict between Muslims and non-Muslims alone.

The organisation also targeted Muslims whose beliefs or practices it rejected.

The relevant distinction is between perpetrators and victims, not a simplistic division between religious populations.

The Long Road to Freedom for Yazidi Survivors

The territorial defeat of ISIS did not end the consequences of its crimes.

Survivors returned to communities affected by mass killings, destruction and displacement.

Many had lost relatives.

Some had spent years in captivity.

Others remained separated from family members whose whereabouts were unknown.

Women and girls who survived sexual slavery often faced complex medical, psychological, legal and social challenges.

Their needs included healthcare, trauma-informed support, education, housing and assistance with documentation.

For survivors who had children during captivity, additional questions arose concerning family relationships, legal identity and community acceptance.

These issues are deeply sensitive and cannot be reduced to a single narrative.

Survivors have different experiences and wishes.

Some seek privacy and the opportunity to rebuild their lives.

Others have become public advocates for justice and recognition.

Effective support must respect those choices rather than treating survivors solely as symbols of atrocity.

The Yazidi Survivors Law

In March 2021, Iraq adopted the Yazidi Survivors Law.

The legislation established a framework intended to provide reparations and other forms of assistance to certain survivors of ISIS crimes.

Its provisions address groups of survivors, including Yazidi women and girls, and recognise the serious harms caused by captivity and sexual violence.

The law represents an important acknowledgement of state responsibility towards victims.

However, the existence of a reparations framework does not automatically ensure that every survivor receives timely assistance.

Implementation can be affected by documentation requirements, administrative procedures, funding and the accessibility of services.

Survivors may also require support that extends beyond financial compensation.

Education, employment opportunities, healthcare and long-term psychological assistance are essential to rebuilding independent lives.

The legislation is therefore an important step, but it is not a complete solution.

The Challenge of Bringing Perpetrators to Justice

Accountability for ISIS crimes remains a major international concern.

UNITAD collected and analysed evidence of crimes committed in Iraq, including genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Its investigative work concluded in 2024.

The team's findings provided an important evidential foundation for future proceedings.

However, gathering evidence and securing criminal convictions are separate processes.

Investigations must identify individual suspects, establish their responsibility and meet the evidential requirements of the relevant court.

Survivors may face difficulties participating in proceedings, particularly where they fear retaliation or retraumatisation.

Some alleged perpetrators have been prosecuted in different jurisdictions, including under international-crimes legislation.

Nevertheless, accountability remains incomplete.

The challenge is not simply to establish that atrocities occurred.

It is to ensure that individuals responsible for ordering, facilitating or committing those crimes can be brought before competent courts.

Justice also requires recognising the rights and dignity of survivors throughout the process.

Iraq's Marriage Laws and the Debate Over Religious Authority

Beyond the crimes committed by ISIS, Iraq faces a separate debate concerning marriage legislation and the influence of religious jurisprudence.

The country's Personal Status Law No. 188 of 1959 established a framework governing marriage and family matters.

The general minimum marriage age is eighteen, although judicial exceptions have historically permitted some marriages from fifteen under specified conditions.

In January 2025, Iraq's parliament approved controversial amendments allowing certain Muslim couples to choose a family-law framework based on Jaafari Shia jurisprudence.

A related Jaafari personal-status code was subsequently adopted in August 2025.

Women's rights organisations raised concerns that the changes could weaken protections concerning marriage, divorce, custody and equality within family relationships.

Early proposals generated particular alarm because critics feared that girls as young as nine could become eligible for marriage.

However, the final legal framework must be distinguished from those initial proposals.

The adopted provisions retained the requirement that the minimum marriage age conform to the existing statutory framework: generally eighteen, with specified judicial exceptions from fifteen.

Iraqi officials have emphasised that the legislation does not authorise marriage at nine.

Human rights organisations nevertheless remain concerned about the effects of religious personal-status provisions, informal marriages and unequal bargaining power within families.

The controversy illustrates the importance of examining the final enacted legislation rather than treating every proposal as law.

It also demonstrates that formal minimum-age rules do not eliminate concerns about implementation, exceptions or the broader rights of women and girls.

Unregistered Marriage and Legal Vulnerability

Marriage registration is an important safeguard because it creates an official record of the relationship.

It can help establish the identities and ages of the spouses and provide evidence relevant to maintenance, inheritance and other legal rights.

However, conflict and displacement can make registration difficult.

Families may lack identity documents.

Courts and government offices may be inaccessible.

Marriage ceremonies may take place informally or through religious authorities without immediate civil registration.

These circumstances can create legal uncertainty.

A girl may struggle to establish her marital status or obtain legal assistance.

Questions may arise concerning the rights of children born within the relationship.

Unregistered marriages can also make it more difficult for authorities to identify marriages involving minors.

UNICEF and UNFPA have identified documentation gaps and inconsistent legal procedures as challenges in humanitarian settings.

The issue is therefore not simply whether a marriage ceremony occurred.

It is whether the individuals involved can exercise their rights and obtain protection under the applicable law.

When Families Seek Legal Protection

Families attempting to challenge an unwanted marriage may encounter different legal systems depending on where they live.

In Syria, years of conflict have fragmented institutions and disrupted access to justice.

In Iraq, family-law disputes may involve civil courts, religious personal-status provisions and questions concerning registration.

For displaced families living abroad, the legal framework of the host country may also become relevant.

These differences complicate efforts to protect girls.

A marriage may have been conducted in one country while the family now resides in another.

Documents may be missing or disputed.

The girl's age may be difficult to establish.

If coercion is alleged, authorities must determine whether she can communicate independently.

The protection of an adult woman's autonomy must also remain central.

A family cannot establish that a marriage was forced merely because it disapproves of the spouse.

Conversely, a marriage document does not prove that a minor was legally capable of marrying or that consent was freely given.

Effective justice requires examining the facts of each case without discrimination.

The Role of Humanitarian Organisations

Humanitarian organisations have developed programmes to prevent and respond to child marriage among conflict-affected populations.

These initiatives may include educational support, financial assistance, healthcare, legal information and community engagement.

Some programmes work directly with adolescent girls.

Others involve parents, teachers, religious leaders and local authorities.

The objective is to reduce the pressures that make early marriage appear necessary while ensuring that girls already married can obtain assistance.

A 2025 UNICEF and UNFPA study examined child-marriage prevention and response programmes in Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Yemen.

The research identified significant barriers, including limited funding, inadequate data and weak monitoring of programme outcomes.

It also highlighted the importance of coordinated services and meaningful engagement with affected communities.

These findings suggest that isolated interventions are unlikely to be sufficient.

A programme encouraging families to delay marriage may have limited impact if girls cannot attend school or households lack basic economic security.

Prevention requires addressing the wider conditions that influence family decisions.

Why Better Data Matters

Reliable information is essential for understanding the scale of child marriage and forced marriage in conflict-affected communities.

However, humanitarian crises make data collection difficult.

Populations move frequently.

Civil registration systems may be incomplete.

Families may avoid reporting sensitive incidents because of stigma or fear.

Different organisations may also use different definitions.

Child marriage, forced marriage, trafficking and conflict-related sexual violence are related but distinct categories.

Combining them into a single figure can create a misleading impression.

For example, statistics concerning marriage before eighteen do not establish how many girls were abducted.

Similarly, figures concerning survivors of ISIS captivity cannot be treated as estimates of ordinary child marriage.

Accurate reporting requires clear definitions, transparent methodologies and careful attribution.

The absence of comprehensive data should not be interpreted as evidence that a problem does not exist.

It does, however, limit the conclusions that can responsibly be drawn about its prevalence.

The Consequences for Girls

The consequences of early or forced marriage depend on the circumstances.

A girl married during adolescence may experience interrupted education, early pregnancy and financial dependence.

If the marriage is abusive, she may face difficulties leaving.

Displacement can intensify these risks by reducing access to relatives, legal assistance and public services.

For survivors of ISIS captivity, the consequences may involve additional and profoundly different harms.

These can include the effects of sexual slavery, torture, forced religious conversion, family separation and prolonged confinement.

It is important not to treat all survivors as having identical experiences.

Their medical, psychological and social needs vary.

Some require specialised trauma care.

Others prioritise education, employment, family reunification or legal recognition.

Support must therefore be based on individual circumstances rather than assumptions.

Above all, girls and women should have a meaningful role in decisions affecting their recovery and future.

What Must Change

Reducing child marriage in Syria and Iraq requires action across several areas.

Education must remain accessible to displaced girls.

Families facing severe poverty need economic support that reduces pressure to arrange early marriages.

Civil registration systems must be strengthened.

Marriage laws should provide clear protection against coercion and unlawful child marriage.

Legal assistance and safeguarding services must be available to girls seeking protection.

Religious and community leaders can help challenge harmful practices while supporting informed and voluntary marriage decisions.

For survivors of ISIS atrocities, additional responsibilities arise.

Governments must support accountability for international crimes.

Reparations programmes must be accessible and effective.

Survivors need long-term healthcare, psychological assistance and opportunities to rebuild their lives.

Families of missing persons also require continued efforts to establish what happened to their relatives.

These measures address different problems, but they share a common principle: vulnerability should not become an opportunity for exploitation.

What This Means

Syria and Iraq demonstrate how conflict can magnify existing inequalities while creating new forms of danger.

Poverty, displacement and interrupted education can increase pressure towards child marriage.

The breakdown of legal institutions can make coercion more difficult to prevent.

Armed organisations can exploit the absence of protection to commit far more systematic crimes.

The genocide against the Yazidis represents an extreme example of how religious persecution, gender-based violence and organised captivity can intersect.

It must not be confused with the broader phenomenon of early marriage among displaced families.

Nevertheless, both experiences demonstrate the importance of institutions capable of protecting girls when their families and communities are under severe pressure.

Legal safeguards matter.

Education matters.

Economic security matters.

And accountability becomes essential when violence is deliberately organised and justified through ideology.

Conclusion: When War Takes Away Choice

For a girl living through conflict, the loss of home and security can change every aspect of daily life.

Education may become inaccessible.

Family income may disappear.

Community networks may collapse.

Marriage may be presented as a solution to uncertainty, even when it creates new forms of dependence.

For girls abducted by ISIS, the destruction of personal freedom was far more direct.

They were subjected to an organised campaign in which religious identity determined their persecution and captivity became an instrument of control.

These experiences differ in their causes, severity and legal classification.

But they reveal a shared danger: when girls lose the ability to make meaningful decisions about their lives, others can use that vulnerability to exercise power over them.

The responsibility of governments, humanitarian organisations and legal institutions is to restore protection and expand genuine choices.

A girl should not have to exchange her childhood for security, nor should war, poverty or religious ideology determine whether she is entitled to freedom.

Chapter 9

When Families Go to Court: The Legal Battle to Protect Their Daughters

For families who believe their daughter has been abducted and forced into marriage, the disappearance is often only the beginning of a much longer struggle.

What follows may involve police complaints, disputed marriage certificates, religious conversion documents, medical examinations, competing claims about age and repeated court appearances.

In Pakistan, these disputes have become particularly controversial when they involve Christian or Hindu girls who are subsequently presented as having converted to Islam and married Muslim men.

Parents may insist that their daughter was taken against her will. The alleged husband may claim that she left voluntarily and entered a lawful marriage. Religious authorities may confirm that a conversion ceremony occurred, while lawyers argue over whether the marriage is legally valid.

At the centre of these competing claims is a girl whose safety, age and ability to make independent decisions may remain uncertain.

For the courts, the challenge is substantial.

They must distinguish between an adult woman's right to marry and change religion without family approval, a child's entitlement to protection from unlawful marriage, and allegations of kidnapping, coercion or sexual exploitation.

These are separate legal questions, even when they arise from the same events.

The outcome can depend on the quality of the initial police investigation, the reliability of identity documents, the applicable provincial legislation and whether the girl has an opportunity to speak without intimidation.

When these safeguards fail, the consequences can be devastating.

The First Step: Reporting a Missing Daughter

When a girl disappears, her family may approach the local police to report her missing or allege that she has been abducted.

In Pakistan, a complaint involving a suspected criminal offence may lead to the registration of a First Information Report, commonly known as an FIR.

The FIR is an important part of the criminal justice process because it formally records information about an alleged cognisable offence and can initiate an investigation.

However, registering a complaint is not the same as proving that a crime occurred.

The police must establish the relevant facts, identify potential witnesses and collect evidence.

Where a child is missing, the need for prompt action is especially important.

Investigators may need to determine when she was last seen, who had contact with her and whether there is evidence of threats, deception or physical force.

Delays can make this process more difficult.

Witnesses may become harder to locate, communications may be lost and the girl may be moved elsewhere.

Human rights organisations have reported concerns about cases in which minority families encountered difficulties obtaining effective police assistance.

Such allegations do not establish that every police officer acts improperly.

They do, however, reveal why consistent investigative procedures are essential.

The religion, social position or financial resources of the complainant should not determine the seriousness with which an allegation is treated.

When Marriage Documents Appear

A case can become substantially more complicated when documents emerge indicating that the missing girl has converted to Islam and married.

The alleged husband or his representatives may produce a nikahnama, the marriage contract used to record a Muslim marriage.

A conversion certificate may also be presented.

These documents can change how the dispute is framed.

What the family describes as an abduction may be presented by the opposing party as a voluntary relationship.

The documents may be used to support the argument that the girl has exercised her right to choose her religion and spouse.

That right is fundamental when the individual is an adult acting freely.

However, the existence of marriage and conversion documents does not establish that no crime occurred.

A court must still consider whether the girl was legally capable of marrying, whether the documents are authentic and whether her decisions were made without coercion.

If she was abducted before the ceremony, the marriage does not automatically remove the need to investigate the alleged offence.

Similarly, a conversion certificate does not prove that a declaration was voluntary.

The central legal question is not simply whether documents exist, but whether they accurately reflect lawful and freely made decisions.

A Case That Exposed the Problem

In April 2024, United Nations human rights experts raised concerns about the treatment of minority girls in Pakistan.

Their statement referred to an allegation involving a thirteen-year-old Christian girl who had reportedly been abducted in March 2024.

According to the experts, she was allegedly forced to convert to Islam and marry the man accused of abducting her.

Her age was reportedly recorded as eighteen on the marriage certificate.

The case illustrated one of the most serious problems in disputed child marriages: a document may identify a girl as an adult even when her family maintains that she is a minor.

The UN experts also expressed concern about judicial decisions in which marriages and conversions involving minority girls had allegedly been validated despite evidence of coercion.

Their statement was an assessment of reported cases and institutional failures. It should not be treated as a substitute for a final judicial finding in every individual dispute.

Nevertheless, it highlighted the need for independent age verification and careful examination of consent.

A court cannot determine whether child-marriage legislation applies without first establishing the individual's age.

Why Age Can Decide the Case

The age of the girl may become one of the most contested facts in legal proceedings.

Parents may present a birth certificate, school records or a child registration document indicating that she is under eighteen.

The alleged husband may rely on a marriage certificate recording an older age.

The difference can affect whether the marriage violates the law and what protective measures are available.

Pakistan's legal framework has historically been complicated by differences between provinces and territories.

However, important reforms have taken place.

Sindh established eighteen as the minimum marriage age for both sexes under its Child Marriage Restraint Act 2013.

The Islamabad Capital Territory Child Marriage Restraint Act 2025 also established eighteen as the minimum age.

Balochistan introduced legislation in 2025 defining a child as a person under eighteen.

Punjab followed with reforms in 2026 establishing eighteen as the minimum marriage age for both males and females.

These developments represent significant changes to Pakistan's legal landscape.

Nevertheless, the applicable law must always be assessed according to the jurisdiction and date of the marriage.

Older cases may fall under earlier legislation.

Differences can also remain concerning criminal penalties, marriage validity, protective custody and judicial procedures.

A reliable legal assessment therefore requires more than stating a national minimum age.

The Importance of Birth Registration

Reliable birth registration can be decisive when a girl's age is disputed.

Official records provide a basis for determining whether she falls within statutory child-protection provisions.

However, not every family possesses complete or consistent documentation.

Children born in remote or economically disadvantaged communities may face barriers to timely registration.

Records may contain errors or conflicting information.

A school certificate may indicate one date of birth while a marriage document records another.

In such cases, courts must assess the evidence carefully.

The reliability of each document, the circumstances in which it was created and the possibility of alteration may all be relevant.

Medical age assessments are sometimes used when documentary evidence is disputed.

However, such assessments generally provide estimates rather than precise chronological ages.

They should therefore be interpreted with appropriate caution.

The consequences of an incorrect determination can be serious.

A girl wrongly treated as an adult may lose access to protections intended for children.

Equally, an adult woman should not be deprived of her autonomy because relatives dispute her age without reliable evidence.

Accurate civil registration is therefore both a child-protection measure and a safeguard for individual freedom.

When the Girl Appears Before a Judge

One of the most sensitive moments in a disputed marriage case occurs when the girl appears before a court.

She may be asked whether she left home voluntarily, converted to Islam and agreed to marry.

Her answers can have substantial legal consequences.

If she states that the marriage was voluntary, the alleged husband may argue that the family's complaint is unfounded.

The family may insist that she is frightened or acting under pressure.

The court must then assess whether her statement is reliable.

The challenge is particularly serious when she has been living with the person accused of coercing her.

Fear, dependency or threats may affect what she feels able to say.

However, a court must not automatically reject a statement simply because it contradicts the wishes of her family.

Adult women have the right to make independent decisions about marriage and religion.

The correct approach is to assess the circumstances in which the statement was made.

Was the individual interviewed privately?

Did she have independent legal advice?

Was she able to request protection?

Was her age reliably established?

Were there indications of threats, confinement or manipulation?

These questions help distinguish genuine consent from circumstances in which apparent agreement may conceal coercion.

A 2025 Islamabad Case Illustrates the Legal Tension

In October 2025, Pakistani newspaper Dawn reported a decision by the Islamabad High Court involving a fifteen-year-old girl who wished to remain with her husband rather than return to her parents.

According to the report, the girl's marriage certificate recorded her age as approximately eighteen, while records held by Pakistan's National Database and Registration Authority indicated that she was fifteen.

The court acknowledged that marriage below eighteen was a criminal offence under the Islamabad Capital Territory Child Marriage Restraint Act 2025.

However, it also addressed the distinction between criminal liability under the statute and the treatment of marriage validity under the religious-law principles considered in the proceedings.

The girl was permitted to remain with her husband.

The judge also called for stronger age-verification procedures and greater consistency between the relevant legal frameworks.

This case should not be described as a proven forced-conversion case. The publicly reported facts do not establish that the girl was abducted or coerced into changing religion.

Its significance lies elsewhere.

It demonstrates how a court may confront competing legal questions when a minor expresses a wish to remain in a marriage that contravenes statutory age restrictions.

It also illustrates why criminal prohibition, marriage validity and protective arrangements must be distinguished.

The fact that an underage marriage is punishable does not necessarily resolve every question concerning the legal status of the relationship or the girl's immediate living arrangements.

Criminal Liability and Marriage Validity Are Different Questions

One of the most confusing aspects of child-marriage litigation is the difference between prohibiting a marriage and determining whether it is legally valid.

A statute may make it a criminal offence for an adult to marry a child.

It may also impose penalties on guardians, marriage registrars or others involved in arranging the ceremony.

However, the legislation may address the legal status of the marriage separately.

Depending on the applicable law, an unlawful marriage may be treated as void, voidable or subject to other legal consequences.

These distinctions can have significant implications for the individuals involved.

Questions may arise concerning maintenance, inheritance, custody and the legal status of children born within the relationship.

For the girl, the consequences can be especially complicated.

A court must avoid leaving her without protection simply because the marriage violated the law.

At the same time, it must not allow the existence of the marriage to shield adults from criminal accountability.

The appropriate legal response therefore requires examining several issues independently.

Was an offence committed?

Is the marriage legally recognised?

What protective arrangements are necessary?

What rights does the girl retain?

Failure to distinguish these questions can produce decisions that appear contradictory.

The Role of Religious Law in Court

Religious law can influence how marriage disputes are argued in Pakistan.

Lawyers may refer to Islamic jurisprudence concerning puberty, consent, guardianship and marriage validity.

In some cases, religious interpretations are invoked to support the argument that a marriage is valid despite the individual's age.

However, Pakistan's legal system also contains statutory child-marriage restrictions.

Courts must determine how the relevant legislation applies and whether criminal offences have occurred.

The relationship between religious jurisprudence and statutory law has therefore become a subject of continuing debate.

Some religious scholars oppose fixed minimum-age restrictions that they consider inconsistent with their interpretation of Islamic law.

Others support legislative protections and argue that preventing harm is consistent with Islamic ethical principles.

The debate is not merely theoretical.

It can influence legislative reform, litigation and the public response to disputed marriages.

Nevertheless, religious arguments cannot independently establish that an alleged kidnapping did not occur.

Nor can they replace the evidential requirements of a criminal investigation.

The court's responsibility is to apply the relevant law while protecting fundamental rights.

The Problem of Conflicting Legal Frameworks

Pakistan's federal structure contributes to differences in marriage regulation.

Provincial legislatures possess important authority over family-related legislation.

As a result, legal reforms have not always occurred simultaneously.

A marriage that violated one jurisdiction's minimum-age requirements at a particular time may have been assessed under different statutory provisions elsewhere.

The situation has changed substantially through reforms introduced between 2013 and 2026.

Yet harmonisation remains important.

Differences in criminal penalties, registration requirements and the legal consequences of unlawful marriages can create uncertainty.

The problem is especially significant when individuals move between provinces or when documents are issued in different jurisdictions.

Courts may need to determine which law applies and whether the relevant procedures were followed.

For families without access to experienced legal representation, navigating these questions can be extremely difficult.

Legal reform is therefore most effective when accompanied by clear procedures, consistent documentation and accessible legal assistance.

The Cost of Going to Court

Legal proceedings can place considerable financial pressure on families.

Lawyers' fees, transport, accommodation and repeated absences from work may become substantial burdens.

For families dependent on daily wages, even a short hearing can mean losing essential income.

If proceedings continue for months, the costs may become difficult to sustain.

The imbalance can be particularly pronounced when the opposing party possesses greater financial resources.

A family may struggle to obtain documents, locate witnesses or challenge procedural delays.

Legal aid organisations can help address these inequalities.

However, access to assistance is not uniform.

Families living in remote areas may have fewer available services.

Language barriers, limited legal knowledge and fear of public attention can create additional obstacles.

The result is that formal access to the courts does not always translate into meaningful access to justice.

A legal system may recognise equal rights while remaining practically inaccessible to those who cannot afford to enforce them.

When Religious Identity Influences the Dispute

Cases involving Christian and Hindu girls can attract attention from religious organisations and community leaders.

A conversion may be presented by supporters as evidence of a freely chosen religious commitment.

The girl's family may describe it as the result of coercion.

Public disagreement can intensify when the marriage involves a minor.

Religious identity may then become central to how the case is understood.

This creates a danger that the individual girl's circumstances will be overshadowed by competing community interests.

A legal dispute should not become a contest over which religion gains or loses a member.

The relevant questions concern age, consent, safety and possible criminal conduct.

An adult woman's voluntary conversion must be respected even when her family objects.

A minor must receive the protection established by law.

And allegations of abduction or intimidation must be investigated without regard to the religious identities of the parties.

These principles are compatible.

The challenge is ensuring that institutions apply them consistently.

The Risk of Intimidation

Legal proceedings can become particularly difficult when families or witnesses fear retaliation.

In some communities, influential individuals may possess social, economic or political connections that discourage complaints.

Religious tensions can add another layer of pressure.

A family may fear public hostility if it challenges a conversion.

Witnesses may be reluctant to testify.

The girl herself may worry about the consequences of contradicting an adult who controls her accommodation or financial support.

These possibilities require investigation rather than assumption.

Not every disputed marriage involves intimidation.

However, where credible concerns arise, authorities should take protective measures.

Confidential interviews, independent legal representation and safe accommodation may help ensure that testimony is given freely.

Protection should extend to all parties facing credible threats.

A fair judicial process requires an environment in which evidence can be presented without coercion.

Protective Custody: Safety or Another Restriction?

Courts sometimes face difficult decisions about where a girl should live while proceedings continue.

Returning her immediately to her family may appear appropriate when the family alleges abduction.

However, that decision may not be safe in every case.

An adult woman may have left home voluntarily because of threats or family opposition to her relationship.

A minor may face risks from the alleged husband, her relatives or both.

Protective accommodation may therefore be necessary.

The purpose should be to provide safety while the relevant facts are established.

However, protective custody can become problematic if it unnecessarily restricts freedom or places an individual in an institution without appropriate safeguards.

The girl's age, wishes and circumstances must be considered.

For children, decisions should prioritise their best interests while respecting their evolving capacities.

For adults, protective measures must not become a substitute for recognising personal autonomy.

The objective is to prevent coercion, not transfer control from one group of adults to another.

Why Independent Legal Representation Matters

Independent legal advice can be particularly important when the girl's interests differ from those of her family or alleged husband.

Parents may sincerely believe that returning home is the safest outcome.

The alleged husband may insist that the marriage should be recognised.

Neither position necessarily represents the girl's independent wishes.

A lawyer acting specifically for her can help ensure that her rights are considered separately.

Where she is a minor, legal representation should work alongside appropriate child-protection procedures.

The girl should receive an explanation of the proceedings in language she understands.

She should know what decisions the court may make and what protection is available.

If she alleges threats or abuse, those concerns should be examined.

If she is an adult and states that her marriage and conversion were voluntary, her autonomy must be respected unless reliable evidence establishes unlawful coercion.

Independent representation helps prevent legal proceedings from becoming solely a dispute between families and husbands.

When a Court Decision Does Not End the Problem

A judgment may resolve an immediate legal question without addressing every consequence of the dispute.

A court may determine where a girl should live.

It may consider the validity of a marriage.

Criminal proceedings may continue separately.

Questions concerning education, healthcare, financial support and family relationships may remain unresolved.

For a girl who has experienced coercion or violence, the need for protection can continue long after the hearing.

She may require medical treatment, counselling or assistance returning to education.

If she has become financially dependent on a spouse, she may need practical support to establish independence.

Families may also face continuing uncertainty or conflict.

This is why legal remedies should be connected to broader safeguarding services.

A court order alone cannot replace the support required to rebuild a life affected by exploitation.

A 2026 Development: New Police Investigation Guidelines in Sindh

One encouraging development has been the introduction of specialised investigative guidance in Sindh.

Pakistan's National Commission on the Rights of Child reported that Sindh Police had endorsed dedicated guidelines for investigating forced conversion through marriage and child marriage.

The guidelines were developed with contributions from the Legal Aid Society and other relevant institutions.

Their purpose is to improve the consistency and quality of investigations.

This is significant because the early stages of a case can determine whether important evidence is preserved.

A properly conducted investigation should examine age documentation, the circumstances of the alleged disappearance, possible coercion and the legal requirements governing marriage.

Specialised guidance can also help officers distinguish between adult autonomy and the protection required for minors.

However, the adoption of guidelines does not establish that implementation is already effective across every district.

Training, resources, supervision and accountability will determine whether the reforms improve outcomes.

The development nevertheless reflects growing recognition within Pakistan that disputed conversions and child marriages require specialised investigative procedures.

The Role of Pakistan's Human Rights Institutions

Pakistan's National Commission for Human Rights and the Legal Aid Society have examined the relationship between forced conversion, marriage and the vulnerability of religious minorities.

Their joint research identifies multiple circumstances in which conversion through marriage may occur.

These range from voluntary decisions to situations involving deception, exploitation, pressure or direct force.

The distinction is important because not every disputed conversion has the same underlying circumstances.

The research also identifies institutional weaknesses that can prevent victims from obtaining effective remedies.

These include inadequate investigations, social power imbalances and difficulties holding perpetrators accountable.

The findings support a broader approach to legal protection.

Courts and police must assess individual evidence rather than relying on assumptions about religious conversion.

They must also recognise that coercion can involve more than physical violence.

Economic dependence, intimidation and unequal power relationships may affect whether a person can make a genuinely free decision.

International Human Rights Obligations

Pakistan has obligations under international human rights treaties, including the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

These instruments protect important principles relevant to disputed marriage cases.

Children are entitled to protection from exploitation and harmful practices.

Freedom of religion includes protection against coercion.

Marriage must be based on free and full consent.

Individuals are entitled to equality before the law and effective legal protection.

These obligations apply regardless of religion.

They do not require courts to presume that every interfaith marriage is forced.

Nor do they permit authorities to disregard credible allegations of coercion because a conversion certificate has been produced.

The challenge is to apply the principles together.

A legal system must protect adult autonomy while enforcing child-protection legislation.

It must respect religious freedom while investigating forced conversion.

And it must ensure that allegations are examined impartially, without allowing wealth, gender or religious identity to determine the outcome.

What Must Change in the Courts

Improving judicial protection requires more than passing additional laws.

Courts need reliable procedures for establishing age and examining consent.

Police must investigate allegations promptly and preserve relevant evidence.

Marriage registrars should verify identity and age documentation according to the applicable legislation.

Girls involved in disputed proceedings should have access to independent legal advice.

Where coercion is suspected, confidential interviews and appropriate safeguarding arrangements are essential.

Legal aid must be accessible to economically disadvantaged families.

Authorities should also collect reliable information about cases and their outcomes.

Such data would help identify patterns, assess institutional performance and distinguish allegations from judicially established offences.

Public accountability matters because reforms cannot be evaluated solely by the number of laws enacted.

Their effectiveness must be measured by whether vulnerable individuals can obtain protection in practice.

What This Means

The legal struggle surrounding alleged forced conversion and marriage reveals a fundamental tension between formal rights and their practical enforcement.

Pakistan's Constitution recognises religious freedom and equality before the law.

Recent reforms have strengthened minimum-age protections in several jurisdictions.

Human rights institutions have documented weaknesses and proposed improvements.

Yet families may still encounter complicated proceedings involving disputed ages, conflicting documents and competing claims about consent.

The existence of a marriage certificate should not prevent investigation of an alleged crime.

The existence of a family complaint should not automatically invalidate an adult woman's voluntary decisions.

And a child's verbal agreement should not be treated as sufficient to disregard applicable child-marriage protections.

The responsibility of the courts is to distinguish between these circumstances through evidence, lawful procedures and independent judgment.

Conclusion: Justice Must Protect the Individual

For families seeking a missing daughter, the courtroom may represent their last realistic opportunity to obtain answers.

For the girl herself, the proceedings may determine where she lives, whether her marriage is recognised and what protection she receives.

These decisions can shape the rest of her life.

The legal system must therefore do more than resolve a disagreement between adults.

It must establish the facts, enforce the law and protect the rights of the individual at the centre of the case.

Religious identity should not determine credibility.

Financial resources should not determine access to justice.

And a marriage document should not be treated as conclusive evidence that a child was free to choose.

The true test of justice is not whether a court recognises a marriage or accepts a conversion certificate. It is whether the person whose future is being decided has been protected from coercion and given the rights guaranteed by law.

Chapter 10

The Legal Battle Over Religion and Marriage: When Religious Authority Meets the Rights of the Child

The legal controversy surrounding child marriage and alleged forced religious conversion in Pakistan is not simply a disagreement over the age at which someone should marry.

It concerns a more fundamental question: what happens when religious interpretations, family authority, criminal legislation and constitutional rights appear to point in different directions?

For a girl whose family alleges that she has been abducted and forced to convert to Islam, these legal distinctions can determine whether she receives protection, whether the alleged husband faces prosecution and whether the marriage is recognised.

The complexity arises because several legal questions may exist simultaneously.

A marriage may have been conducted according to a religious ceremony but prohibited under child-marriage legislation.

A conversion may have been formally recorded while the circumstances surrounding consent remain disputed.

An adult woman may have exercised her freedom to change religion despite her family's objections.

Alternatively, a minor may have been placed in a relationship in which her age, dependency and vulnerability raise serious concerns about exploitation.

The law must be capable of distinguishing between these situations.

Pakistan's constitutional framework provides protections for religious freedom and equality before the law. Its criminal legislation prohibits various forms of coercion, while provincial and territorial laws regulate child marriage.

However, the relationship between these protections has not always been straightforward.

Recent legislative reforms have strengthened safeguards against child marriage, but important questions remain concerning enforcement, marriage validity, religious authority and the ability of vulnerable individuals to obtain justice.

A Constitution That Protects Religion and Equality

Pakistan's Constitution establishes Islam as the state religion.

At the same time, it contains provisions intended to protect fundamental rights.

Article 20 recognises freedom to profess, practise and propagate religion, subject to law, public order and morality.

Article 25 establishes equality before the law and equal protection of the law.

Article 36 directs the state to safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of minorities.

These provisions are central to disputes involving alleged forced conversion and marriage.

Religious freedom protects an individual's ability to hold or change beliefs without unlawful interference.

Equality before the law requires that individuals receive legal protection regardless of their religious identity.

The protection of minorities is particularly relevant when a Christian or Hindu family alleges that a daughter has been subjected to coercion.

However, constitutional rights can also protect a woman who voluntarily converts to Islam and marries against her family's wishes.

This creates an important distinction.

Religious freedom belongs to the individual, not exclusively to the family or religious community.

An adult woman cannot automatically be deprived of that freedom because relatives oppose her decision.

Equally, a claim of religious freedom cannot be used to excuse kidnapping, intimidation or conduct prohibited by child-protection legislation.

The purpose of constitutional protection is to safeguard individual rights, not to give one party unrestricted authority over another.

The Role of Islamic Law in Pakistan's Legal System

Islamic jurisprudence has an important place in Pakistan's legal and constitutional development.

Article 227 of the Constitution provides that laws should be brought into conformity with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Qur'an and Sunnah.

Pakistan also has institutions responsible for examining questions concerning Islamic principles.

The Council of Islamic Ideology advises Parliament and provincial assemblies on matters relating to the conformity of legislation with Islamic teachings.

The Federal Shariat Court has a distinct constitutional role in examining whether certain laws are repugnant to Islamic injunctions.

These institutions do not perform identical functions.

The Council's recommendations are advisory rather than automatically binding legislation.

The Federal Shariat Court exercises judicial powers within its constitutional jurisdiction.

Ordinary courts also apply statutes and relevant legal principles when resolving disputes.

This institutional structure helps explain why debates over child marriage can become legally and politically complicated.

A proposal to increase the minimum marriage age may be assessed not only as a child-protection measure but also through competing interpretations of Islamic jurisprudence.

However, religious disagreement does not itself determine the outcome of every legal case.

The applicable statute, constitutional framework and relevant judicial decisions must all be considered.

Religious Marriage and Civil Law Are Not the Same

In Pakistan, Muslim marriages are commonly solemnised through a nikah, a marriage contract recognised within Islamic legal tradition.

The marriage is ordinarily recorded through a nikahnama.

These documents may establish that a ceremony occurred and record information about the spouses and the terms of their marriage.

However, religious solemnisation and compliance with statutory law are separate questions.

A marriage may have been conducted by a religious officiant while violating legislation concerning the minimum marriage age.

Similarly, the existence of a marriage certificate does not establish that an individual consented freely.

Where allegations of abduction or coercion arise, authorities must investigate the circumstances independently.

This distinction is particularly important in cases involving minors.

A religious ceremony cannot determine a girl's chronological age.

Nor can it remove criminal liability that arises under an applicable child-marriage statute.

The legal system must therefore distinguish between evidence that a ceremony took place and evidence that the marriage complied with all relevant legal requirements.

Why Pakistan's Marriage Laws Have Differed

Pakistan's child-marriage legislation developed through a combination of colonial-era law, provincial amendments and more recent reforms.

The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 historically established different minimum ages for males and females.

Following constitutional changes affecting the distribution of legislative powers, provinces increasingly developed their own frameworks.

This produced differences between jurisdictions.

Sindh became an early example of reform.

Its Child Marriages Restraint Act 2013, enacted as Act XV of 2014, defined a child as any person under eighteen, regardless of sex.

The law imposed criminal penalties on adults contracting child marriages and on individuals who facilitated them.

Islamabad subsequently adopted the Islamabad Capital Territory Child Marriage Restraint Act 2025.

That legislation also established eighteen as the minimum age and introduced provisions concerning registration, criminal liability and child protection.

Punjab followed with major reforms in 2026.

The Punjab Child Marriage Restraint Act 2026 replaced the earlier provincial framework and established eighteen as the minimum age for both males and females.

These developments represent an important shift towards stronger legal protection.

However, they should not be presented as evidence that every marriage involving a minor is automatically treated in the same way throughout Pakistan.

The applicable law depends on the jurisdiction, date and particular legal question.

Differences concerning penalties, registration, marriage validity and protective measures remain important.

Punjab's 2026 Reform: A Significant Legal Change

Punjab's 2026 legislation is particularly significant because the province is home to a large proportion of Pakistan's population, including substantial Christian communities.

The reform established a minimum marriage age of eighteen for both sexes.

It prohibited marriage registrars from registering child marriages.

Adults who marry children face criminal penalties, while other provisions address the involvement of guardians and individuals who facilitate unlawful marriages.

The legislation also addresses cohabitation arising from child marriage as a child-protection concern.

Importantly, the law introduced a more explicit focus on the best interests of the child.

This reflects a broader movement away from treating child marriage solely as an irregular family arrangement.

Instead, the legislation recognises that children require specific safeguards against exploitation.

Nevertheless, the effectiveness of the reform will depend on implementation.

Registrars must verify ages.

Police must investigate complaints.

Prosecutors must bring appropriate cases.

Courts must apply the legislation consistently.

Without these measures, a stronger statutory framework may fail to provide the protection intended by lawmakers.

A Prohibited Marriage Is Not Always Automatically Void

One of the most important legal distinctions concerns the difference between criminal liability and the validity of a marriage.

A statute may prohibit child marriage and impose penalties on those responsible.

However, it does not necessarily follow that the marriage is automatically void under every applicable legal framework.

This distinction was illustrated by a decision reported in Karachi in December 2025.

A sessions court convicted a man under Sindh's child-marriage legislation.

The court nevertheless distinguished criminal liability under that statute from the separate question of marriage validity under personal law.

According to the reported judgment, the Sindh legislation imposed criminal penalties but did not itself contain a provision automatically annulling the marriage.

The judge indicated that the validity of the marriage contract was a separate matter for the appropriate legal forum.

This distinction can appear contradictory.

How can a marriage be prohibited while questions about its legal validity remain unresolved?

The answer lies in the difference between a law that punishes conduct and a law that determines the civil status of a relationship.

These are separate legal functions.

The consequences are substantial.

A girl may require protection from an unlawful marriage while questions concerning maintenance, custody or marital status remain before another court.

The legal system must ensure that these technical distinctions do not leave children without effective remedies.

The Danger of Confusing Validity With Consent

A marriage's legal validity does not automatically establish that consent was genuine.

A court may determine that a marriage contract satisfies certain formal requirements while separate allegations of intimidation or coercion remain unresolved.

Conversely, a relationship may be consensual while failing to comply with statutory marriage-age restrictions.

These possibilities demonstrate why legal analysis must proceed carefully.

There are at least three distinct questions.

First, was the individual legally capable of entering the marriage?

Second, was the marriage conducted in accordance with the applicable legal requirements?

Third, was the decision made freely, without unlawful coercion?

A positive answer to one question does not necessarily resolve the others.

For a minor, legal capacity and child-protection requirements are particularly important.

For an adult woman, the right to make independent decisions must be respected.

Where coercion is alleged, the circumstances surrounding the marriage must be investigated regardless of the formal documents presented.

The Legal Position of Religious Conversion

Pakistan's Constitution protects religious freedom, but disputes involving conversion can raise difficult questions about personal autonomy and coercion.

An adult woman may voluntarily convert to Islam.

Her family may strongly oppose that decision.

The fact that relatives object does not establish that the conversion was forced.

However, a conversion obtained through threats, confinement or other unlawful pressure cannot be treated as an ordinary exercise of religious freedom.

The legal challenge is to determine which situation occurred.

Conversion certificates may provide evidence that a religious declaration was made.

They do not conclusively establish the circumstances in which the declaration occurred.

A girl may have been isolated from her family.

She may have been financially dependent on an adult.

She may have faced threats or intimidation.

Alternatively, she may have made an independent decision that her relatives refuse to accept.

Courts must examine the available evidence without presuming that either account is correct.

The distinction is especially important where the individual is under eighteen.

Her age and vulnerability create additional safeguarding responsibilities.

Why Forced Conversion Is Difficult to Prosecute

Forced religious conversion presents particular legal challenges.

A conversion may occur in private.

Witnesses may be limited.

The individual concerned may later provide a statement supporting the conversion.

Families may allege that the statement was obtained through threats.

In other cases, an adult woman may genuinely wish to remain with her husband and reject her family's account.

These circumstances make independent investigation essential.

Pakistan's legal framework contains provisions addressing kidnapping, abduction, forced marriage and other criminal conduct.

For example, section 498B of the Pakistan Penal Code criminalises coercing or compelling a woman to enter marriage.

Other provisions may apply depending on the alleged conduct.

However, the existence of these offences does not mean that every allegation can easily be prosecuted.

Investigators must establish the elements of the relevant offence.

They must obtain reliable evidence and ensure that testimony is not influenced by intimidation.

A conversion certificate alone cannot settle these questions.

Equally, a family complaint cannot replace the evidential requirements of criminal proceedings.

The challenge is to investigate coercion without undermining genuine freedom of religion.

When Religious Authorities Influence Legal Outcomes

Religious leaders may become involved in disputed conversion cases by witnessing ceremonies, issuing certificates or offering interpretations of religious law.

Their involvement can carry considerable social influence.

A conversion endorsed by a respected religious figure may be regarded by some community members as legitimate.

However, religious recognition and legal protection are not interchangeable.

A religious leader cannot determine whether an alleged kidnapping occurred.

Nor can a religious certificate conclusively establish age or freedom from coercion.

These are matters requiring legal investigation.

Religious authorities can nevertheless contribute to prevention.

They may refuse to facilitate marriages involving children.

They may insist on reliable identity documents.

They may refer allegations of coercion to the appropriate authorities.

Such practices can strengthen legal protection without requiring the state to disregard religious freedom.

The issue is therefore not whether religion should have a place in community life.

It is whether religious authority is exercised in a manner consistent with the rights of the individuals concerned.

The Position of Religious Minorities Before the Law

Christian and Hindu families may face additional difficulties when challenging alleged forced conversions.

Some belong to economically disadvantaged communities.

Others report discrimination or fear of hostility when pursuing legal complaints.

These factors can affect access to lawyers, witnesses and public institutions.

However, the existence of minority vulnerability does not justify assuming that every conversion from Christianity or Hinduism to Islam is forced.

Such an assumption would undermine the freedom of individuals who voluntarily change religion.

The legal system must protect both rights.

It must ensure that religious minorities are not exposed to coercion or discriminatory treatment.

It must also protect adults who exercise personal autonomy against family opposition.

The relevant principle is equality before the law.

A girl's religion should not determine whether police investigate an alleged offence.

A husband's religion should not determine whether evidence of coercion is accepted or rejected.

And a family's religious objections should not automatically override an adult woman's lawful choices.

The Importance of Independent Testimony

When a conversion or marriage is disputed, the individual's own account is essential.

However, the circumstances in which testimony is obtained matter.

A girl may be questioned while living with the person accused of coercing her.

She may fear retaliation if she contradicts him.

She may also fear returning to relatives who oppose her decisions.

These competing risks require careful safeguarding.

Independent legal representation can help ensure that her interests are considered separately from those of the adults involved.

Confidential interviews may reduce pressure.

Where the individual is a minor, trained child-protection professionals should assess her welfare.

The purpose is not to disregard her wishes.

It is to establish whether those wishes can be expressed freely and how they should be considered under the applicable law.

For adult women, autonomy must remain the starting point.

For children, the law must recognise both their views and their entitlement to protection.

International Human Rights Law and Marriage

International human rights standards provide an important framework for evaluating child marriage and religious coercion.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects freedom of thought, conscience and religion.

It also recognises the principle that marriage requires free and full consent.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child establishes obligations concerning children's protection, welfare and development.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women addresses equality in marriage and family relations.

International treaty bodies have called for eighteen to be established as the minimum marriage age.

These standards are particularly relevant where children face pressure to marry or change religion.

However, international obligations do not automatically resolve every question concerning the application of domestic law.

Courts must consider the constitutional and statutory framework within their jurisdiction.

Governments remain responsible for bringing national legislation and practice into compliance with their international commitments.

The existence of a treaty obligation is therefore an important legal standard, but effective protection depends on implementation.

The Rights of Parents and the Rights of the Child

Parents have legitimate responsibilities concerning the upbringing and welfare of their children.

They may provide religious education, guidance and support.

However, parental authority is not unlimited.

International child-rights principles require that parental guidance be exercised consistently with the child's evolving capacities.

A parent cannot automatically justify an unlawful marriage by claiming that it serves family interests.

Nor can a family use its religious beliefs to compel an adult daughter to abandon a voluntary marriage.

The rights of the child and the responsibilities of parents must therefore be distinguished.

For minors, the state has a duty to prevent exploitation and enforce child-protection legislation.

For adults, personal autonomy becomes central.

This distinction is particularly important in interfaith relationships.

A family's opposition may arise from sincere religious convictions.

Nevertheless, those convictions do not establish that an adult woman's decision was unlawful.

Conversely, a family's concern about an underage daughter's safety must be investigated even if a religious ceremony has taken place.

When Legal Reform Meets Social Resistance

Changing legislation does not automatically change social practices.

Some communities may continue to regard marriage during adolescence as acceptable.

Religious leaders may disagree about the appropriate minimum age.

Families experiencing poverty may view marriage as a means of securing financial stability.

Marriage ceremonies may also occur outside formal registration systems.

These circumstances can weaken enforcement.

A registrar may be prohibited from recording an underage marriage, but an informal ceremony may still take place.

A family may know that child marriage is unlawful while believing that authorities are unlikely to intervene.

Effective reform therefore requires public awareness, reliable civil registration and consistent accountability.

Education is equally important.

Girls who remain in school have greater opportunities to develop independence and make informed decisions.

Economic support can reduce pressure on families.

Community engagement can help challenge harmful practices without portraying entire religious populations as responsible.

The purpose of reform is not simply to change legal language.

It is to change the circumstances in which children become vulnerable to exploitation.

Why Criminal Prosecution Is Not Enough

Criminal penalties are an important part of protecting children.

However, prosecution alone cannot address every consequence of an unlawful marriage.

A girl may need safe accommodation.

She may require medical care or psychological support.

Her education may have been interrupted.

She may have become financially dependent on the person accused of exploiting her.

If she has children, additional questions concerning their welfare may arise.

Legal proceedings must therefore be connected to broader support services.

A conviction may establish criminal responsibility without resolving the survivor's long-term needs.

Similarly, a decision concerning marriage validity may leave questions about safety and financial independence unanswered.

Effective protection requires coordination between courts, police, healthcare providers, schools and social services.

The Need for Consistent Judicial Standards

Recent legal reforms in Pakistan have strengthened statutory protections against child marriage.

However, consistent judicial interpretation remains essential.

Courts must distinguish between the criminal consequences of an unlawful marriage and questions concerning its civil validity.

They must assess age using reliable evidence.

They must investigate allegations of coercion without treating religious declarations as conclusive.

They must respect the autonomy of adults while applying child-protection safeguards to minors.

Judicial decisions should also explain clearly how competing legal principles have been reconciled.

This is important for legal certainty.

Families, lawyers, police officers and marriage registrars need to understand the applicable rules.

Where the law is unclear, inconsistent decisions can create uncertainty and undermine confidence in the justice system.

Legal reform must therefore be accompanied by training, accessible guidance and effective review procedures.

What This Means

Pakistan's legal debate over religion and marriage illustrates the difficulty of protecting individual freedom within a system shaped by religious tradition, constitutional rights and evolving legislation.

The country has taken significant steps towards strengthening child-marriage restrictions.

Yet the relationship between statutory prohibition, marriage validity and religious jurisprudence continues to raise difficult questions.

For vulnerable girls, these distinctions are not abstract.

They can determine whether an adult is prosecuted, whether a marriage is recognised and whether protection is available.

For adult women, the same legal system must safeguard the right to make independent religious and marital choices.

A just framework must protect both groups without treating their circumstances as identical.

The central objective is not to eliminate religious freedom.

It is to ensure that religious freedom cannot be used to conceal coercion or remove protections established for children.

Conclusion: The Law Must Protect Freedom, Not Power

The legal battle over religion and marriage ultimately concerns the relationship between authority and individual rights.

Families possess influence.

Religious institutions possess influence.

Husbands may possess financial and social power.

The state possesses the authority to enforce the law.

But none of these forms of power should determine a girl's future without regard to her rights.

A religious ceremony cannot erase criminal conduct.

A conversion certificate cannot establish consent without examining the circumstances.

A parent's objection cannot automatically invalidate an adult woman's independent decision.

And a child's vulnerability cannot be disregarded because adults claim that a marriage is religiously legitimate.

Pakistan's recent legal reforms demonstrate that stronger protection is possible.

Their success will depend on whether courts, police and public institutions enforce the law impartially.

The central question is not whether religion or the state should control marriage. It is whether the law can ensure that no person is deprived of freedom through coercion, and that no child is left unprotected because others claim authority over her life.

Chapter 11

When the Victim Says She Agreed: Consent, Fear and the Difficult Search for Truth

A girl disappears from her family home.

Her parents report that she has been abducted. Days or weeks later, documents emerge indicating that she has converted to another religion and married.

When the case reaches court, she declares that she left voluntarily.

She says she agreed to the marriage.

Her parents insist that she is frightened, threatened or being manipulated.

The alleged husband maintains that the relationship is lawful and that the family is refusing to accept her decision.

For the judge, the central question is no longer simply what happened when the girl disappeared.

It is whether the statement now being presented as evidence of consent reflects a genuinely independent decision.

Such cases are among the most difficult in disputes involving alleged forced conversion and marriage.

A statement of agreement may be truthful. An adult woman may have chosen to leave her family, convert to another religion and marry despite strong opposition.

But an apparently voluntary declaration may also have been made under pressure.

Fear, economic dependency, isolation and threats can influence what someone feels able to say.

Where the individual is a minor, a further question arises: whether the law permits the marriage at all, regardless of her expressed wishes.

These distinctions are essential.

Protecting people from coercion must not become an excuse to deny adults their freedom.

Equally, respecting individual choice must not mean ignoring the circumstances in which that choice was made.

What Does Genuine Consent Mean?

Consent is often discussed as though it were a simple question with a simple answer.

Did the individual say yes or no?

In reality, meaningful consent requires more than a verbal declaration.

A person must have the capacity to make the decision, understand its consequences and be free from unlawful coercion.

The circumstances surrounding the decision matter.

An individual may agree because the alternative appears dangerous.

Someone may accept a marriage because refusing would result in threats, violence or severe punishment.

Another person may feel unable to contradict an adult who controls their accommodation, income or access to family members.

In such circumstances, the words used to express agreement may not fully reveal the pressures influencing the decision.

However, unequal circumstances do not automatically establish coercion.

Adults routinely make important decisions while facing financial constraints, family disagreements or social expectations.

The legal task is to identify when those pressures cross the threshold into unlawful conduct or undermine genuine freedom of choice.

For children, the assessment is different because statutory age restrictions and safeguarding duties apply independently of a declaration of consent.

The Difference Between Agreement and Legal Capacity

A minor may express a wish to marry.

She may believe that she loves the prospective husband.

She may insist that the relationship is voluntary.

These statements deserve to be heard.

However, they do not necessarily establish that the marriage is lawful.

Legal capacity is distinct from personal preference.

Child-marriage legislation establishes restrictions intended to protect individuals whose age makes them particularly vulnerable to exploitation and unequal relationships.

In Pakistan, the applicable rules depend on the jurisdiction and the date of the marriage.

Recent reforms have strengthened minimum-age protections in several provinces and territories.

Where a marriage violates the relevant legislation, a declaration of willingness cannot automatically eliminate criminal liability.

Nor should a girl's expressed agreement prevent authorities from investigating allegations of kidnapping, intimidation or sexual exploitation.

The correct approach is not to disregard her voice.

It is to consider her wishes within the legal framework designed to protect children.

When Fear Shapes a Statement

Fear does not always appear as visible distress.

A person who feels threatened may speak calmly.

She may repeat an explanation consistently.

She may deny that anything is wrong.

These behaviours cannot, by themselves, establish whether coercion occurred.

However, they demonstrate why investigators should not assume that the absence of visible fear proves the absence of intimidation.

A girl may worry that contradicting her alleged husband will expose her to retaliation.

She may fear consequences for her family.

She may believe that the authorities cannot protect her after the hearing.

If she has been isolated from relatives or friends, she may have limited access to independent advice.

The possibility of such pressures requires careful examination.

Investigators should seek corroborating evidence, including communications, witness accounts and information about the circumstances surrounding the alleged disappearance.

A statement must be assessed in context rather than treated as conclusive simply because it was delivered confidently.

Threats Against Family Members

Coercion can involve threats directed at people other than the individual making the decision.

A girl may be told that relatives will suffer if she refuses a marriage or contradicts a particular account.

She may believe that cooperation is necessary to protect her parents or siblings.

Such allegations are difficult to investigate when threats occur privately.

The absence of independent witnesses can complicate prosecution.

Nevertheless, authorities should consider whether the circumstances indicate intimidation.

Relevant evidence may include messages, recorded communications, witness testimony or previous incidents.

The possibility of threats against relatives should not be assumed in every disputed marriage.

It must be established through evidence.

Where credible concerns exist, however, protective measures may need to extend beyond the girl herself.

A witness cannot be expected to testify freely if doing so creates a realistic risk of violence against her family.

Economic Dependence and Unequal Power

Economic dependence can influence the choices available to an individual.

A girl who has no independent income may rely on an adult for food, accommodation and transport.

If she has been removed from school or separated from her family, that dependence may become particularly significant.

An older husband may possess financial resources and social influence that the girl lacks.

These inequalities do not automatically prove that a marriage is forced.

However, they can affect whether the girl feels able to refuse, leave or seek assistance.

The distinction becomes especially important when evaluating consent.

A person may formally possess the right to make a decision while lacking realistic opportunities to exercise it safely.

For a minor, the imbalance can be even greater.

Her age may limit her understanding of legal procedures and available support.

She may also lack the practical independence needed to challenge an adult.

The responsibility of investigators is to examine these circumstances without assuming that poverty or an age difference alone establishes criminal conduct.

Isolation and the Loss of Independent Support

Isolation can increase vulnerability.

A girl who has lost contact with relatives, friends, teachers or other trusted adults may have fewer opportunities to obtain advice.

She may become dependent on a single person for information about her legal position.

If she does not understand the proceedings, she may repeat explanations provided by others.

These concerns are particularly relevant when an alleged abduction is followed by rapid conversion and marriage.

Investigators may need to establish where the girl lived during the intervening period.

Who controlled her movements?

Could she communicate privately?

Did she have access to a telephone?

Was she able to leave?

Did she receive independent legal advice?

The answers can help establish whether her decisions were made freely.

However, isolation must be distinguished from voluntary separation.

An adult woman may choose to avoid contact with relatives who oppose her relationship.

That decision is not, by itself, evidence of coercion.

The relevant question is whether she retained meaningful control over her circumstances.

Psychological Manipulation and Grooming

Coercion is not always immediate or physical.

In some exploitative relationships, an adult may gradually develop influence over a younger person.

This process can involve attention, promises, secrecy and the creation of emotional dependence.

The term grooming is commonly used in safeguarding contexts to describe behaviours intended to prepare a child for exploitation.

However, it should not be applied automatically to every relationship involving a younger person or an older partner.

A finding of grooming requires evidence of manipulative or exploitative conduct.

Where such behaviour is established, it can help explain why a child appears loyal to someone accused of harming her.

She may regard the individual as a protector.

She may fear losing the relationship.

She may reject assistance because she does not recognise the situation as exploitative.

These responses do not prove that coercion occurred.

They do demonstrate why investigators should understand the dynamics of dependency and manipulation when assessing allegations involving minors.

When Religious Conversion Becomes Part of the Pressure

In disputed cases involving Christian or Hindu girls in Pakistan, religious conversion can create additional complications.

A girl may state that she voluntarily adopted Islam before marrying a Muslim man.

Her family may insist that the conversion was forced.

Religious authorities may confirm that a declaration of faith occurred.

Yet the central question remains whether the decision was made freely.

A religious ceremony does not establish that coercion was absent.

Nor does family opposition establish that coercion occurred.

The distinction is particularly important because freedom of religion includes the right to change one's beliefs.

An adult woman must be able to exercise that freedom without being compelled to return to her family's religion.

At the same time, religious freedom cannot justify threats or intimidation intended to secure conversion.

Where the individual is a minor, the authorities must also consider her age, evolving capacities and the applicable child-protection framework.

The legal system must avoid treating conversion as either automatic evidence of freedom or automatic evidence of exploitation.

The Problem of Statements Prepared by Others

In some legal disputes, concerns arise about whether an individual's statement reflects her own words.

A girl may have received advice from a lawyer, relative, religious figure or alleged husband.

Receiving advice is not inherently improper.

People involved in legal proceedings often require assistance understanding their rights.

The concern arises when someone is instructed what to say through threats, manipulation or pressure.

A prepared statement may contain information that is accurate.

It may also omit relevant circumstances.

Courts therefore need procedures that allow individuals to explain their decisions independently.

Open-ended questions can be more informative than questions inviting a simple yes or no.

A judge may need to establish whether the individual understands the consequences of the marriage and whether she knows what alternatives are available.

For children, interviews should be conducted in an age-appropriate manner.

The purpose is to obtain reliable evidence without introducing further pressure.

Why a Private Interview Matters

The setting in which testimony is obtained can affect whether an individual feels safe enough to speak freely.

A girl may hesitate to contradict an alleged husband while he is present.

She may also feel pressured if relatives who oppose the marriage are nearby.

A private interview can reduce these immediate influences.

However, privacy alone does not guarantee reliable testimony.

The interviewer must be appropriately trained.

The individual should understand the purpose of the questions.

Where necessary, an independent interpreter should be available.

Legal advice and safeguarding support may also be required.

The interviewer should avoid assuming that the family or alleged husband is necessarily telling the truth.

Instead, the objective should be to establish the girl's own account and identify any circumstances that may affect its reliability.

Where a minor is involved, the process must prioritise her safety and best interests.

The Importance of Independent Legal Representation

Independent legal representation can help protect individuals whose interests may differ from those of the adults involved.

In a disputed marriage case, parents may seek the return of their daughter.

The alleged husband may seek recognition of the marriage.

Religious organisations may take an interest in the conversion.

None of these parties necessarily represents the girl's independent legal interests.

A lawyer acting specifically for her can explain the proceedings and available options.

The lawyer can also raise concerns about coercion, age verification or safeguarding.

For minors, legal representation should operate alongside appropriate child-protection procedures.

For adults, it should support their ability to make independent decisions.

The objective is not to produce a predetermined outcome.

It is to ensure that the individual's rights are considered separately from the competing demands of others.

When a Woman Chooses Against Her Family's Wishes

Not every disputed marriage involves a victim.

Some adult women leave their families because relatives oppose their chosen partner or religious beliefs.

An interfaith relationship may be unacceptable to parents for religious, cultural or social reasons.

The family may describe the departure as an abduction.

The woman may insist that she left voluntarily.

In such circumstances, the state must protect her autonomy.

An adult woman is not the property of her parents.

She has the right to make lawful decisions concerning marriage and religion.

The fact that a family experiences distress does not establish that a crime occurred.

This distinction is essential to credible reporting.

Journalists should not describe an adult woman as a victim of forced conversion solely because her relatives reject her account.

Equally, a woman's declaration of consent does not automatically disprove credible evidence of threats or unlawful confinement.

The legal process must evaluate the evidence rather than rely on assumptions about family honour or religious identity.

When a Girl Is Too Young to Marry

The situation changes when the individual is legally a child.

Minimum-age legislation establishes boundaries intended to prevent adults from entering marriages with minors.

A child's stated willingness does not automatically override those restrictions.

This is particularly important in cases involving substantial age differences.

A young adolescent may express affection for an older man while lacking the legal capacity to marry him.

She may not fully understand the long-term consequences of financial dependence, pregnancy or leaving education.

However, the law should not treat children as incapable of expressing meaningful views about their own circumstances.

Their wishes matter.

The distinction is between listening to a child and treating her agreement as sufficient to authorise an unlawful arrangement.

Protective decisions should consider age, maturity, safety and the applicable law.

Trauma and the Reliability of Testimony

People who experience frightening or traumatic events do not always recall or describe them in a consistent way.

Some may remember particular details clearly while struggling with others.

Some may delay disclosing abuse.

Others may initially deny experiences they later describe.

However, inconsistent testimony does not automatically establish trauma.

Nor does a consistent account automatically establish that an allegation is true or false.

Trauma-informed interviewing seeks to reduce unnecessary distress while obtaining accurate information.

It avoids treating emotional presentation as a simple test of credibility.

A person who appears calm may have experienced harm.

A person who appears distressed may still be mistaken about particular facts.

Investigators must therefore combine testimony with other available evidence.

Medical records, communications, witness accounts and documentary evidence may help clarify events.

The purpose is to establish facts fairly rather than interpret every behaviour as confirmation of a preferred explanation.

The Danger of Assuming That Silence Means Consent

Silence is particularly difficult to interpret.

A girl may remain quiet because she is frightened.

She may not understand the question.

She may be reluctant to discuss private matters in public.

Alternatively, she may simply choose not to provide information.

Silence cannot automatically be treated as agreement.

In legal proceedings, the relevant rules concerning evidence and consent must be applied.

Where allegations involve minors or possible exploitation, investigators should ensure that the individual has a meaningful opportunity to communicate.

This may require additional time, specialist assistance or a safer setting.

However, repeated questioning can itself become harmful.

Authorities should avoid pressuring someone to provide the answer they expect.

The objective is to establish reliable evidence while respecting dignity and procedural fairness.

When Families May Also Exert Pressure

Coercion does not always come from the alleged husband.

Families may pressure daughters to reject relationships, return home or withdraw statements.

In some circumstances, an adult woman may fear violence because she has married outside her community or changed religion.

These possibilities must be considered seriously.

A court should not assume that returning to the family is always the safest outcome.

Nor should it assume that remaining with the husband is necessarily safe.

The individual's age, circumstances and independent wishes must guide the assessment.

For minors, safeguarding professionals should examine risks from all relevant parties.

For adults, the state must protect the freedom to choose where to live and whom to marry, subject to the law.

The principle is consistent: protection should reduce coercion rather than transfer control from one group of adults to another.

The Role of Police and Courts

Police and courts face difficult responsibilities in disputed marriage cases.

They must investigate allegations without prejudging the outcome.

They must establish age and examine the authenticity of documents.

They must distinguish criminal conduct from lawful adult autonomy.

They must also recognise that coercion may involve psychological pressure or threats rather than visible physical violence.

These responsibilities require training and consistent procedures.

In Pakistan, the development of specialised investigative guidance concerning forced conversion through marriage and child marriage reflects growing recognition of these challenges.

However, guidance is only effective when implemented.

Investigators need resources, supervision and access to appropriate safeguarding services.

Courts need reliable evidence and clear legal standards.

Above all, the process must provide a safe opportunity for the individual concerned to be heard.

What International Human Rights Standards Require

International human rights law provides several principles relevant to consent.

Marriage requires free and full consent.

Freedom of religion includes protection against coercion.

Children are entitled to special protection from exploitation and harmful practices.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child also recognises the importance of hearing children's views in matters affecting them, with appropriate consideration given to age and maturity.

These principles must be understood together.

Listening to a child does not mean permitting every decision that a child wishes to make.

Protecting a child does not mean ignoring her perspective.

Respecting an adult woman's autonomy does not mean disregarding evidence of coercion.

The responsibility of the state is to distinguish between these circumstances through lawful, fair and evidence-based procedures.

Why the Burden of Proof Matters

Allegations of kidnapping, forced marriage and coercion can have serious criminal consequences.

The accused is entitled to a fair trial and the presumption of innocence.

The prosecution must establish criminal responsibility according to the applicable legal standard.

At the same time, the need for proof should not prevent authorities from investigating credible allegations or taking lawful protective measures.

These responsibilities are different.

An investigation determines whether sufficient evidence exists to support criminal proceedings.

A safeguarding assessment considers whether an individual may be at risk.

A court may therefore need to address immediate safety concerns while criminal allegations remain unresolved.

This distinction is important because a failure to secure a conviction does not necessarily establish that no harm occurred.

Equally, an allegation alone cannot justify treating someone as criminally guilty.

A credible justice system must preserve both principles.

When Protection Becomes Another Form of Control

Efforts to protect girls can sometimes create additional restrictions on their freedom.

An individual may be placed in protective accommodation while proceedings continue.

Such arrangements may be necessary where there is a credible risk of violence or intimidation.

However, they should be lawful, proportionate and subject to appropriate review.

Protective measures must not become a means of punishing someone for making an unpopular decision.

For adult women, unnecessary restrictions can undermine the autonomy the legal system is supposed to defend.

For children, protective arrangements should prioritise safety, wellbeing and the least restrictive appropriate option.

Independent oversight is important.

The purpose of protection is to create conditions in which genuine choices become possible.

It is not to replace one form of coercion with another.

The Responsibility of Journalists

Cases involving disputed conversion and marriage frequently attract public attention.

Families may share photographs, documents and allegations through the media.

Religious organisations may publicise cases as evidence of persecution.

Supporters of the marriage may present competing accounts.

Journalists must approach these claims carefully.

A family's allegation should be clearly attributed.

A conversion certificate should not be treated as conclusive proof of consent.

A court statement should be reported accurately and in context.

Where the individual is a minor or may have experienced sexual exploitation, her privacy and safety require particular protection.

Publishing identifying information can expose a child to further harm.

Responsible reporting must also avoid presenting every interfaith relationship as suspicious.

The purpose of journalism is to establish what can be verified, explain what remains disputed and examine whether institutions have fulfilled their responsibilities.

What Must Change

Improving the assessment of consent requires changes in both legal procedures and safeguarding practice.

Age must be established through reliable evidence.

Individuals involved in disputed marriages should have access to independent legal advice.

Where coercion is alleged, interviews should take place in circumstances that minimise intimidation.

Children should receive age-appropriate support.

Authorities must investigate possible threats, confinement and exploitation rather than relying exclusively on formal declarations.

Protective accommodation and other services should be available where necessary.

Police and courts must also recognise the rights of adults who make lawful decisions against their families' wishes.

The objective is not to presume coercion.

It is to ensure that consent is assessed fairly and that legal protections are not defeated by unequal power relationships.

What This Means

The question of consent lies at the centre of the wider investigation into forced conversion and child marriage.

It is also one of the most difficult questions to answer.

A declaration of agreement may reflect a genuine personal decision.

It may also conceal fear, dependency or intimidation.

A family's allegation may identify serious wrongdoing.

It may also arise from opposition to an adult woman's independent choices.

For minors, the law introduces additional safeguards that cannot be set aside simply because a child expresses willingness to marry.

These distinctions demand careful investigation.

They also require institutions capable of protecting individuals from pressure exerted by husbands, relatives, religious authorities or other influential actors.

The objective is not to decide in advance whose account should be believed.

It is to create a process in which the truth can be established and the individual's rights can be protected.

Conclusion: The Freedom to Say No

Consent is meaningful only when a person has the ability to refuse.

That principle is central to understanding forced marriage.

A declaration of agreement cannot be evaluated without considering the circumstances in which it was made.

Fear, threats, isolation and dependency may affect the freedom to choose.

But genuine autonomy must also be protected when adults make decisions that their families or communities oppose.

The law must therefore avoid two equally serious errors.

It must not accept every declaration of consent without examining credible evidence of coercion.

And it must not deny an adult woman's independence merely because others disagree with her choices.

For children, the obligation is even clearer: their views deserve respect, but their legal protection cannot depend solely on whether they say yes.

The most important question is not simply whether a girl or woman agreed. It is whether she was legally capable of making that decision and genuinely free to say no.

Chapter 12

The Organisations Fighting for These Girls: Protection, Justice and the People Who Refuse to Look Away

Behind the statistics on child marriage, abduction and alleged forced religious conversion are families searching for answers, girls trying to regain control of their lives and organisations attempting to secure protection in difficult circumstances.

Some organisations provide legal assistance. Others investigate allegations, document patterns of abuse, support survivors or campaign for stronger legislation.

Their work can involve challenging influential individuals, confronting institutional failures and raising concerns that authorities would sometimes prefer to avoid.

In Pakistan, human rights organisations have drawn international attention to allegations involving Christian and Hindu girls who reportedly disappeared, converted to Islam and married under disputed circumstances.

In Afghanistan, women's rights defenders have continued advocating for girls' education and freedom despite severe restrictions imposed by the Taliban.

In Iraq, survivor-led organisations have worked to rebuild the lives of Yazidi women and girls subjected to ISIS atrocities.

Across Syria and neighbouring countries, humanitarian organisations have sought to reduce the pressures that contribute to child marriage among displaced families.

These organisations differ in their mandates, resources and methods.

A national human rights commission does not perform the same role as a lawyer representing an individual family. A survivor-led organisation may provide services that a government institution cannot. An international agency may influence legislation without having authority to investigate an individual crime.

Understanding these differences is essential.

The organisations fighting for vulnerable girls cannot replace the responsibilities of governments, police or courts.

But their work can expose failures, improve access to justice and help survivors rebuild their lives.

Pakistan: Where Civil Society Has Become an Essential Source of Evidence

Pakistan has an active network of human rights defenders, lawyers, researchers and community organisations.

Their work is particularly important in cases where allegations involve religious minorities.

Christian and Hindu families may face financial barriers, discrimination or limited access to legal representation.

Some families report difficulties persuading authorities to investigate allegations of abduction or forced conversion.

Others struggle to challenge marriage certificates recording an age different from their daughter's official documents.

Civil society organisations attempt to address these problems through legal research, public advocacy, referrals and engagement with government institutions.

They also collect information that may not appear in official crime statistics.

However, the figures produced by advocacy organisations require careful interpretation.

A documented allegation is not necessarily a judicially established offence.

Different organisations may use different definitions, and some cases may be recorded by more than one group.

Underreporting is also a concern.

These limitations do not make civil society research unimportant. They make transparency about methodology particularly necessary.

The Centre for Social Justice: Documenting Allegations and Challenging Discrimination

The Centre for Social Justice, commonly known as CSJ, is a Pakistan-based organisation working on human rights, religious freedom and the protection of marginalised communities.

Its research has become an important reference point in discussions about alleged forced conversion and marriage involving religious minorities.

CSJ documents reported cases, examines legal developments and advocates stronger protection.

Its findings have been cited in international country reports and assessments of religious freedom.

According to figures attributed to CSJ in a July 2026 British government country report, the organisation recorded at least 421 reported cases involving abduction and alleged forced conversion of minority girls and women between January 2021 and December 2024.

The reported victims included Hindu, Christian and Sikh girls and women.

For 2024 alone, CSJ documented 83 cases involving allegations of abduction and forced conversion or related conduct.

These figures concern reported incidents identified through the organisation's monitoring.

They should not be interpreted as a comprehensive national total or as proof that every allegation resulted in a criminal conviction.

Nevertheless, the data indicate a persistent protection concern, particularly in Sindh and Punjab.

CSJ's contribution extends beyond counting cases.

By examining legislation and institutional responses, the organisation seeks to identify the conditions that allow harmful practices to continue.

Its work also challenges the assumption that religious conversion disputes can be understood solely as disagreements between families.

Poverty, gender inequality, access to justice and the treatment of minorities all require examination.

The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan: Monitoring Abuses and Seeking Accountability

The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, known as HRCP, is an independent human rights organisation with a long history of documenting violations and advocating constitutional protections.

Its work covers a broad range of issues, including minority rights, violence against women, freedom of expression and the functioning of public institutions.

HRCP publishes research and assessments of Pakistan's human rights situation.

It also operates a Complaints Cell that receives reports of alleged abuses.

The Complaints Cell addresses matters including forced marriage, forced conversion, gender-based violence and violations affecting religious minorities.

According to HRCP's published description of its work, the cell contacts relevant authorities and uses referral arrangements with other organisations.

This distinction matters.

HRCP is not a police force and does not conduct criminal prosecutions.

Its complaints mechanism should not be confused with direct legal representation in every case.

Its role is to document concerns, seek institutional responses and direct complainants towards appropriate assistance.

For families who believe their complaints have been ignored, such intervention can provide an additional route for raising concerns.

However, HRCP cannot compel a court to reach a particular decision.

Its effectiveness ultimately depends partly on whether state institutions respond.

The National Commission for Human Rights: An Official Institution With a Different Mandate

Pakistan's National Commission for Human Rights, or NCHR, occupies a different position from independent advocacy organisations.

It is a statutory human rights institution established under Pakistani law.

Its responsibilities include examining human rights concerns, reviewing legal protections and making recommendations to public authorities.

The Commission has investigated issues affecting religious minorities and vulnerable women.

In collaboration with the Legal Aid Society, it produced research examining the drivers of forced conversion through marriage.

The study explored the interaction between gender, religion, economic vulnerability and unequal power relationships.

Importantly, the research distinguished between different circumstances in which conversion through marriage may occur.

These included voluntary decisions as well as situations involving deception, exploitation, pressure or direct force.

Such distinctions are essential.

Not every disputed conversion is the same.

An adult woman's voluntary decision must not be categorised as forced simply because her family objects.

Equally, authorities must not assume that a formal declaration of faith proves the absence of coercion.

The NCHR's involvement gives these concerns an institutional channel within Pakistan's human rights framework.

However, recommendations do not automatically result in prosecution, legal reform or protection for an individual victim.

Implementation remains the responsibility of the relevant authorities.

The Legal Aid Society: Turning Research Into Practical Reform

The Legal Aid Society, or LAS, works to improve access to justice in Pakistan.

Its activities include legal empowerment, research, institutional engagement and programmes addressing violence against women and children.

The organisation's Gender and Child Security work specifically includes forced conversion through marriage, sexual and gender-based violence, and the protection of women and children.

One of its most important contributions has been collaboration with the NCHR on research into the circumstances surrounding disputed conversions.

Rather than treating all cases as identical, the research examined the different ways in which consent may be affected.

This approach has practical implications.

Police investigating a suspected abduction need different evidence from authorities examining a voluntary conversion opposed by relatives.

Cases involving minors require additional child-protection safeguards.

Situations involving financial dependency or deception may demand particular attention to the circumstances surrounding consent.

By identifying these distinctions, legal researchers can help improve investigative procedures.

However, research alone does not guarantee that officers will apply the findings.

Training, supervision and accountability are necessary to translate recommendations into practice.

A Significant Development: New Investigation Guidelines in Sindh

One example of cooperation between civil society and public institutions concerns the development of specialised police guidelines in Sindh.

Pakistan's National Commission on the Rights of Child, the Legal Aid Society and other stakeholders contributed to guidelines addressing investigations of forced conversion through marriage and child marriage.

Sindh Police formally endorsed the guidance.

According to the National Commission on the Rights of Child, Sindh became the first Pakistani province to adopt a dedicated investigative standard for these cases.

The guidelines aim to improve the consistency and quality of police investigations.

This development is significant because the earliest stages of a case often determine whether reliable evidence can be collected.

Investigators may need to establish the girl's age, examine marriage documents, identify possible coercion and ensure that the individual can communicate safely.

A poorly conducted investigation can leave important questions unanswered.

Specialised procedures may help officers avoid treating a conversion certificate as conclusive evidence or assuming that every family complaint proves abduction.

The guidelines also demonstrate that cooperation between human rights organisations and state authorities is possible.

Nevertheless, their adoption should not be confused with proof of successful implementation.

The effectiveness of the reform must be assessed through training, investigative practice and outcomes over time.

The National Commission on the Rights of Child

Pakistan's National Commission on the Rights of Child, or NCRC, has a specific mandate concerning children's rights.

Its work includes monitoring child-protection issues, reviewing legislation and encouraging stronger institutional safeguards.

The Commission has publicly addressed forced conversion and early marriage.

In September 2024, it held a consultation with the Centre for Social Justice involving legislators, civil society representatives and other stakeholders.

The discussion focused on weaknesses in legal protection and the need for stronger implementation.

The NCRC's involvement is important because child marriage should not be treated exclusively as a religious dispute.

It is also a question of children's rights, legal capacity, education and protection from exploitation.

A child-protection institution can help shift attention towards the welfare of the individual girl.

However, like other oversight bodies, the Commission depends on cooperation from authorities responsible for enforcing the law.

Its recommendations can strengthen policy, but they do not replace police investigations or judicial decisions.

Christian Advocacy Organisations and the Protection of Minority Girls

Christian organisations and advocacy networks have played a prominent role in drawing attention to allegations involving Christian girls in Pakistan.

Their activities include documenting cases, supporting families, engaging international institutions and advocating stronger legal protection.

Voice for Justice and Jubilee Campaign have collaborated on research concerning reported abduction, forced conversion and child marriage involving Christian girls.

In a submission circulated through the United Nations Human Rights Council documentation system, the organisations described findings from an examination of 100 reported cases.

Their submission identified recurring concerns, including disputed age documentation, separation from families and allegations that courts had insufficiently examined possible pressure.

These findings represent research and advocacy presented by the organisations.

They should not be described as independent judicial determinations in all 100 cases.

Nevertheless, such documentation can help identify issues requiring closer investigation.

Faith-based organisations may also possess valuable community relationships.

Families may be more willing to approach people they know and trust.

At the same time, organisations representing religious communities must distinguish legitimate protection concerns from objections to voluntary adult conversion.

The credibility of advocacy depends on maintaining that distinction.

Hindu Communities and Grassroots Advocacy

Hindu communities in Pakistan, particularly in Sindh, have also raised concerns about alleged abduction, forced conversion and marriage.

Some affected families belong to economically disadvantaged or socially marginalised groups.

Limited financial resources can make it difficult to obtain legal representation or travel repeatedly to court.

Community advocates may assist families by helping them contact lawyers, journalists or human rights institutions.

They may also organise public campaigns calling for investigations.

Such efforts can bring attention to cases that might otherwise remain local disputes.

However, publicity carries risks.

A girl may be exposed to unwanted attention.

Religious tensions may intensify.

Unverified allegations may spread rapidly through social media.

Responsible advocacy therefore requires balancing public accountability with the privacy and safety of the individual concerned.

The objective should be to obtain a fair investigation and effective protection, not to turn a disputed case into a confrontation between religious communities.

The Role of Lawyers

For a family pursuing a legal complaint, an experienced lawyer can be essential.

Legal proceedings may involve criminal allegations, marriage registration, age documentation and questions concerning personal law.

A lawyer may help the family understand which court has jurisdiction and what evidence is required.

They may challenge disputed documents or seek protective measures.

However, the interests of parents and daughters are not always identical.

An adult woman may oppose her family's legal action.

A minor may need independent representation because her interests differ from those of both her relatives and alleged husband.

Legal assistance must therefore protect the individual rather than automatically endorse one side.

This is particularly important in cases involving religious conversion.

A lawyer representing an adult woman who voluntarily changed religion should defend her autonomy.

A lawyer representing a child subjected to unlawful marriage should seek appropriate protection and accountability.

The shared principle is access to justice, regardless of religion or social position.

Why Independent Investigation Matters

Advocacy organisations can identify patterns and raise concerns, but they cannot replace independent criminal investigation.

A family may report that a daughter was abducted.

An organisation may publicise the allegation.

The alleged husband may deny wrongdoing.

The girl may provide a statement supporting or rejecting the family's account.

The police must examine the evidence.

Courts must determine the legal consequences.

Human rights organisations can contribute by monitoring whether these procedures are fair and effective.

However, responsible advocacy requires acknowledging uncertainty.

A reported case should be described as an allegation until sufficient evidence establishes what occurred.

Similarly, an acquittal or unsuccessful prosecution does not automatically demonstrate that the original complaint was fabricated.

The distinction between allegations, investigative findings and judicial outcomes is essential to credible human rights reporting.

International Religious Freedom Organisations

International organisations also monitor the treatment of religious minorities in Pakistan.

Christian Solidarity Worldwide, commonly known as CSW, has reported concerns involving alleged forced conversion and marriage.

Its reporting is frequently used in international discussions of religious freedom.

According to the British government's July 2026 country report, CSW's partners documented 94 reported cases involving abduction, forced conversion and forced marriage of religious minority women and girls during 2025.

The reported cases involved both Hindu and Christian victims.

These figures should be understood as cases documented through the organisation's partner network, not as a verified nationwide total.

The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom also examines conditions affecting religious minorities.

Such organisations can bring attention to cases through international reporting, policy recommendations and engagement with governments.

However, international advocacy has limitations.

Foreign institutions cannot independently enforce Pakistani criminal law.

They may also rely partly on information supplied by local partners.

Their findings should therefore be assessed with attention to sources, methodology and the distinction between reported allegations and established facts.

The United Nations: Monitoring Rights and Pressuring Governments

United Nations human rights mechanisms have repeatedly raised concerns about alleged forced conversion and marriage involving minority girls in Pakistan.

Independent UN experts have called for stronger protection, effective investigations and accountability.

Their statements have highlighted concerns about coercion, child marriage and the treatment of minority girls by public institutions.

In 2026, UN experts again warned about reported patterns affecting Hindu and Christian women and girls.

They emphasised the importance of genuine freedom of religion and full, free consent to marriage.

UN experts can request information, communicate concerns to governments and draw international attention to human rights issues.

However, they do not function as national police officers or trial judges.

Their statements may be based on credible reports and information received from multiple sources, but they do not automatically establish the criminal responsibility of every individual named in an allegation.

The value of international monitoring lies in identifying systemic concerns and encouraging governments to fulfil their legal obligations.

UNICEF and the Prevention of Child Marriage

UNICEF approaches child marriage primarily through the framework of children's rights and development.

Its work includes supporting education, child protection, healthcare and efforts to address harmful practices.

Child marriage is closely connected to wider conditions affecting girls.

Poverty can increase vulnerability.

Interrupted education can reduce future opportunities.

Weak civil registration can make age verification difficult.

Gender inequality can limit a girl's ability to influence decisions about her life.

UNICEF's approach therefore extends beyond legal prohibition.

Preventing child marriage also requires strengthening the systems that help girls remain in education and access essential services.

This is particularly important in humanitarian settings.

A family experiencing severe economic hardship may need practical support as well as information about the law.

The same principle applies to girls who are already married.

They should not be excluded from education, healthcare or protection because a marriage has taken place.

UNFPA: Addressing Gender-Based Violence and Reproductive Health

The United Nations Population Fund, known as UNFPA, works on sexual and reproductive health, gender equality and the prevention of gender-based violence.

Its programmes are relevant to child marriage because early marriage can expose girls to early pregnancy, interrupted education and unequal relationships.

UNFPA also works with partners in humanitarian settings.

In conflict-affected communities, prevention programmes may combine education, health services, psychosocial support and community engagement.

The organisation has contributed to research examining child-marriage interventions in Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Yemen.

Such research helps identify what programmes can realistically achieve and where important gaps remain.

However, international agencies cannot eliminate child marriage through short-term projects alone.

Their effectiveness depends on funding, local partnerships and the wider political and legal environment.

Afghanistan: Defending Girls Under Taliban Restrictions

In Afghanistan, organisations advocating for women and girls face a particularly restrictive environment.

Since the Taliban returned to power in 2021, girls have been excluded from formal secondary education and women from universities.

Restrictions on women's employment and public participation have also affected civil society and humanitarian operations.

These policies create serious obstacles for organisations attempting to provide services to girls.

Female staff may face restrictions.

Community programmes may require additional approvals.

Access to vulnerable women and girls may be limited.

Afghan women's rights defenders have nevertheless continued advocating for education, personal freedom and protection from violence.

Some operate through international networks.

Others support educational or humanitarian initiatives where circumstances permit.

Their work carries risks.

Public opposition to Taliban policies can expose activists to intimidation or detention.

The international community therefore faces a difficult responsibility: supporting Afghan women without unnecessarily increasing the danger to those working inside the country.

Why Education Advocates Matter

Organisations defending girls' education also contribute to preventing child marriage.

Education provides opportunities for independence and can reduce the pressures associated with early marriage.

In Afghanistan, the exclusion of girls from secondary education has removed one of the most important pathways towards professional and economic participation.

UNICEF and other international organisations have warned about the long-term consequences.

However, the work of education advocates should not be understood solely as a campaign against child marriage.

Girls have a right to education regardless of whether they are at risk of marrying.

The broader objective is to ensure that girls can develop their abilities and participate in society.

Preventing early marriage is one important consequence of protecting that right.

Iraq: Survivor-Led Organisations After the Yazidi Genocide

The situation in Iraq demonstrates a different form of advocacy.

Following the ISIS genocide against the Yazidis in 2014, survivor-led and community-based organisations emerged to support victims and seek justice.

Their work addresses atrocities including abduction, sexual slavery, forced religious conversion and family separation.

These crimes must not be confused with ordinary child marriage.

ISIS subjected Yazidi women and girls to organised captivity and exploitation.

Survivors often require specialised medical, psychological and legal support.

Organisations working with Yazidi communities therefore focus on recovery, accountability, documentation and the reconstruction of communities devastated by violence.

Nadia's Initiative: Rebuilding Lives and Communities

Nadia's Initiative was founded by Yazidi survivor and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Nadia Murad.

The organisation focuses on rebuilding communities affected by mass atrocities and supporting survivors of sexual violence.

Its work is particularly connected to Sinjar, the Yazidi homeland in northern Iraq.

Projects address education, healthcare, livelihoods, infrastructure and women's empowerment.

The organisation also advocates accountability for ISIS crimes and greater support for survivors.

This approach recognises that recovery requires more than rescuing individuals from captivity.

A survivor may need access to education after years of disruption.

A family may require housing and healthcare.

A community may need schools, employment opportunities and functioning public services before displaced residents can return safely.

Nadia's Initiative places particular emphasis on survivor-centred recovery.

That principle is important because survivors should have a meaningful role in decisions about rebuilding their lives.

Yazda and the Documentation of Atrocities

Yazda is another organisation associated with the protection of Yazidi communities and advocacy for survivors.

Its work has included documentation, humanitarian support and efforts to promote accountability for crimes committed by ISIS.

Documenting atrocities is a demanding process.

Investigators may need to preserve testimony, identify missing persons and collect information relevant to future legal proceedings.

Survivors may be asked to describe profoundly traumatic experiences.

Ethical documentation therefore requires informed consent, confidentiality and sensitivity to the risks of retraumatisation.

The purpose is not simply to record suffering.

Reliable evidence may support legal proceedings, historical recognition and efforts to establish the fate of missing relatives.

However, civil society documentation does not automatically result in prosecution.

Courts must assess evidence according to the applicable legal standards.

The Free Yezidi Foundation: Protection and Independence

The Free Yezidi Foundation was established in response to the 2014 genocide.

Its work includes protection, education, livelihoods, advocacy and support for Yazidi women and communities.

The organisation places particular emphasis on women's rights and long-term resilience.

This is significant because survivors' needs do not end when captivity ends.

Women may require vocational training, education and opportunities to become financially independent.

Families may need assistance navigating displacement and rebuilding community connections.

Children affected by conflict may require sustained educational and psychosocial support.

By combining protection with longer-term opportunities, organisations can help survivors regain control over their lives.

Nevertheless, the scale of need remains substantial.

No individual foundation can replace the responsibility of Iraqi authorities and international institutions to provide security, justice and essential public services.

Cooperation With Iraq's Survivors Directorate

In March 2023, Iraq's Directorate for Survivors Affairs entered into a cooperation arrangement with eight organisations providing mental health and psychosocial support.

The agreement established a referral mechanism for beneficiaries of the Yazidi Survivors Law.

Participating organisations included the Free Yezidi Foundation, Yazda, the Jiyan Foundation, the SEED Foundation and other service providers.

The initiative demonstrates how government institutions and civil society can work together.

A reparations law may recognise a survivor's rights.

However, the individual may still require practical assistance to obtain healthcare or psychological support.

Referral systems can help connect legal recognition with services.

Their effectiveness depends on capacity, accessibility and continued funding.

The agreement also illustrates a broader lesson relevant to forced marriage and exploitation: legal remedies and recovery services must operate together.

Syria: Protecting Girls Through Humanitarian Assistance

In Syria, years of conflict and displacement have created significant challenges for organisations working to prevent child marriage.

Families may face poverty, interrupted education and insecure accommodation.

Some girls live in communities where access to healthcare and legal assistance remains limited.

Humanitarian organisations have developed programmes addressing these risks.

Their activities may include educational support, financial assistance, gender-based violence services and community engagement.

UNICEF and UNFPA have examined the effectiveness of such interventions in Syria and neighbouring countries.

The findings emphasise that child marriage cannot be prevented through awareness campaigns alone.

Families may understand the risks while continuing to face economic pressures that influence marriage decisions.

Programmes must therefore address the wider circumstances that limit girls' choices.

Why Rescue Is Only the Beginning

Public attention often focuses on the moment a girl is recovered from an allegedly coercive situation.

However, recovery does not necessarily mean that the underlying harm has been resolved.

A girl may have missed months or years of education.

She may have experienced violence or psychological distress.

Her family may face financial difficulties.

Publicity surrounding the case may expose her to stigma.

If legal proceedings continue, she may have to recount difficult experiences repeatedly.

Organisations providing long-term assistance therefore play an essential role.

Support may include healthcare, counselling, education, safe accommodation and legal guidance.

However, services must be tailored to individual circumstances.

Not every girl has experienced the same harm.

Not every survivor wants public recognition.

And not every person involved in a disputed conversion case is a victim.

Effective support requires listening to the individual rather than imposing a predetermined narrative.

The Financial Reality of Human Rights Work

Human rights organisations often operate with limited resources.

Legal proceedings can be expensive.

Investigations require trained personnel.

Shelters and psychosocial services involve continuing costs.

Research and documentation demand time and expertise.

International organisations may depend on donor funding that changes according to political priorities.

Local organisations may face even greater financial uncertainty.

These constraints can affect the number of cases they are able to assist.

A family may require help immediately, while an organisation has limited staff or cannot provide direct legal representation.

Long-term support is particularly difficult to finance.

Donors may be willing to fund emergency assistance but less willing to support years of education, counselling or rehabilitation.

The gap between immediate intervention and sustained recovery is therefore a significant challenge.

Security Risks and Political Pressure

Advocates working on religious freedom, gender-based violence and minority rights may encounter hostility.

Their work can challenge influential individuals or institutions.

In some circumstances, public campaigns may generate threats.

The risks vary considerably between countries and organisations.

In Afghanistan, restrictions imposed by the Taliban have created direct barriers to women's rights advocacy.

In Pakistan, organisations addressing sensitive religious issues may face social or political pressure.

In Iraq and Syria, insecurity and the consequences of conflict can complicate field operations.

However, risks should not be generalised.

Not every organisation experiences the same threats, and allegations of intimidation require evidence.

The wider concern is that human rights defenders need sufficient protection to perform their work independently.

The Limits of International Pressure

International attention can encourage governments to respond to allegations of abuse.

UN statements, parliamentary debates and human rights reports can increase scrutiny.

However, public criticism does not automatically produce change.

Governments may reject findings, dispute the methodology or argue that domestic law already provides sufficient protection.

Legal reform may face political opposition.

Even when new legislation is adopted, implementation can remain weak.

International organisations also have limited authority within sovereign states.

They cannot ordinarily direct police investigations or compel domestic courts to convict defendants.

Their influence depends on diplomacy, monitoring, cooperation and the willingness of governments to act.

This is why domestic civil society remains essential.

Local organisations often possess the relationships, knowledge and practical access needed to identify problems and support affected individuals.

When Advocacy Risks Becoming Politicised

Cases involving religion and marriage can become symbols in wider political debates.

Some groups may present every disputed conversion as evidence of religious persecution.

Others may dismiss allegations of coercion as attempts to prevent voluntary conversion.

Neither approach is sufficient.

The evidence must determine the conclusion.

A Christian or Hindu girl who has been abducted and forced into marriage requires protection.

An adult woman who voluntarily converts to Islam must also be protected from coercion by relatives or community members.

Human rights principles apply to both.

Organisations strengthen their credibility when they distinguish verified facts from allegations and acknowledge uncertainty.

They also strengthen public trust by avoiding generalisations about religious communities.

The objective should be to protect individuals and improve institutions, not to deepen hostility between populations.

What Effective Protection Requires

The organisations examined in this chapter demonstrate that protection requires several interconnected forms of assistance.

Legal representation can help individuals challenge unlawful conduct.

Human rights monitoring can identify institutional weaknesses.

Reliable research can inform legislation.

Education programmes can reduce vulnerability.

Economic assistance can address pressures associated with child marriage.

Healthcare and psychological services can support recovery.

Community engagement can challenge harmful practices.

However, these interventions cannot succeed independently of the state.

Police must investigate credible allegations.

Courts must apply the law fairly.

Governments must ensure that children can access education and protection.

Public institutions must prevent discrimination.

Civil society can strengthen these systems, but it cannot permanently substitute for them.

What This Means

The struggle against child marriage and forced religious conversion is not being carried out by one organisation or one religious community.

It involves lawyers, researchers, human rights defenders, educators, survivor-led organisations and public institutions.

Their approaches differ because the problems they confront differ.

In Pakistan, much of the work concerns legal protection, disputed conversions and the vulnerability of minority girls.

In Afghanistan, advocates face a political environment that severely restricts women's rights and education.

In Iraq, organisations continue supporting survivors of ISIS atrocities and demanding accountability.

In Syria and neighbouring countries, humanitarian agencies seek to reduce the pressures that can contribute to early marriage.

Across these settings, the central challenge is the same: translating recognised rights into meaningful protection.

Conclusion: Protection Requires More Than Public Outrage

Public attention can bring an individual case into the spotlight.

A photograph may circulate.

A family may appeal for help.

An organisation may issue a statement.

International observers may call for an investigation.

But attention alone cannot guarantee safety or justice.

A girl may still need a lawyer.

She may need protection from threats.

She may require medical treatment, education or long-term psychological support.

Her family may lack the resources to continue legal proceedings.

And the institutions responsible for enforcing the law may remain ineffective.

The organisations fighting for these girls perform an essential role by documenting abuses, challenging failures and providing assistance.

Their work deserves scrutiny as well as recognition, because credibility depends on reliable evidence, transparency and respect for individual rights.

Ultimately, however, governments remain responsible for ensuring that children are protected and adults can exercise their freedoms without coercion.

The measure of progress is not how many organisations condemn an injustice, but whether the people facing that injustice can obtain protection, justice and the opportunity to rebuild their lives.

Chapter 13

The Long-Term Consequences: When Childhood Cannot Simply Be Restored

A girl may be found after an alleged abduction. A court may order protective measures. A marriage may be challenged, or a survivor may escape years of captivity.

From the outside, such developments can appear to mark the end of a difficult story.

For the individual concerned, however, they may represent only the beginning of another struggle.

Returning home does not automatically restore lost education. A favourable court decision does not erase the consequences of violence. Escape from an abusive relationship does not necessarily provide financial independence, emotional security or a safe place to live.

The consequences of child marriage, forced marriage and sexual exploitation can extend far beyond the immediate events.

They may affect physical health, psychological wellbeing, education, employment, family relationships and the ability to make independent decisions.

Some survivors face continuing legal difficulties. Others experience stigma or rejection. Girls who have become mothers may carry responsibilities for which they received little preparation or support.

Yet these outcomes are not inevitable.

Experiences vary considerably, and many survivors rebuild their lives through education, employment, supportive relationships and access to appropriate services.

Understanding the long-term consequences therefore requires examining both the harm that may occur and the conditions that make recovery possible.

The Difference Between Rescue and Recovery

The immediate priority in a suspected case of abduction or forced marriage is establishing safety.

Authorities may need to locate the individual, investigate alleged offences and provide protection.

However, emergency intervention addresses only the immediate danger.

Recovery is a longer process.

A girl may need to return to school after a prolonged absence. She may require healthcare, legal assistance or support rebuilding relationships with trusted people.

If she has experienced violence, she may need specialist services.

If she has been living away from her family, returning home may involve difficult adjustments.

In some cases, the family itself may not be a safe environment.

The appropriate response therefore depends on the individual's age, wishes, circumstances and assessed risks.

For minors, child-protection authorities should prioritise safety and wellbeing while taking their views seriously.

For adults, recovery must respect personal autonomy.

The objective is not simply to return someone to the situation that existed before the alleged abuse.

It is to restore meaningful opportunities for safety, independence and choice.

The Physical Consequences of Early Marriage

Child marriage can expose girls to health risks associated with early pregnancy, limited access to healthcare and unequal power within relationships.

The World Health Organization has identified adolescent pregnancy as a major public health concern.

Adolescent mothers aged ten to nineteen face higher risks of certain pregnancy-related complications than women aged twenty to twenty-four.

These include eclampsia, puerperal endometritis and systemic infections.

Babies born to adolescent mothers also face increased risks of premature birth, low birth weight and serious neonatal complications.

These findings describe population-level risks.

They do not mean that every adolescent pregnancy results in complications.

Nevertheless, they demonstrate why pregnancy during adolescence requires appropriate healthcare and why preventing unwanted early pregnancy is an important public health objective.

The risks may be greater where girls cannot access antenatal care, emergency obstetric services or reliable health information.

For girls living in poverty, remote communities or humanitarian settings, these barriers can be particularly serious.

When Pregnancy Comes Before Adulthood

Marriage during adolescence is often followed by expectations concerning motherhood.

In some families, pregnancy may be regarded as an immediate responsibility after marriage.

A young wife may have limited influence over decisions about contraception or the timing of childbirth.

The World Health Organization has identified child marriage as an important factor contributing to adolescent pregnancy.

The connection is particularly concerning when a girl has little bargaining power within the relationship.

She may face pressure to become pregnant before she has completed her education or developed financial independence.

Pregnancy can then create additional barriers to leaving an unwanted marriage.

A girl who becomes a mother may depend on her husband or his relatives for accommodation and financial support.

She may also worry about losing contact with her child if the relationship ends.

These circumstances do not affect every young mother in the same way.

However, they demonstrate how early marriage can create responsibilities and dependencies that continue into adulthood.

Sexual Violence and Reproductive Health

The consequences of forced marriage can be particularly serious when it involves sexual violence.

Survivors may experience physical injuries, sexually transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancy or other reproductive health concerns.

Some require urgent medical attention.

Others may seek assistance months or years after the abuse occurred.

Access to confidential and appropriate healthcare is essential.

Medical professionals should provide treatment without blaming the survivor or making assumptions about her experience.

Where pregnancy results from sexual violence, the individual may face additional legal, medical and social difficulties.

These can include restrictions on reproductive healthcare, family pressure and uncertainty concerning the legal status of children.

The situation is especially complex for survivors of conflict-related sexual slavery.

In Iraq, United Nations reporting has documented the challenges faced by Yazidi women and girls who survived ISIS captivity.

Their experiences involved organised violence and exploitation that must be distinguished from the broader phenomenon of child marriage.

The appropriate response requires specialised, survivor-centred healthcare and long-term support.

Psychological Consequences: Beyond the Immediate Trauma

Girls who experience coercion, violence or prolonged captivity may face psychological consequences.

These can include anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances, difficulties concentrating and persistent feelings of insecurity.

Some survivors experience trauma-related symptoms.

Others struggle with trust or relationships.

However, it would be inaccurate to suggest that every survivor develops a mental health disorder.

Psychological responses vary according to the events experienced, the individual's circumstances and the support available.

Some people recover without requiring specialist treatment.

Others benefit from counselling or more intensive mental healthcare.

The distinction is important because survivors should not be defined by assumptions about their psychological condition.

A girl who appears confident may still need support.

A girl who is distressed may not have a diagnosable disorder.

Appropriate assessment should be conducted by qualified professionals rather than inferred from appearance or behaviour.

The Loss of Trust

Coercion can affect a person's ability to trust others.

This may be particularly difficult when the alleged perpetrator was someone known to the family or presented as a source of protection.

A girl may struggle to distinguish between relationships that are safe and those that involve manipulation.

She may become cautious about forming new friendships.

Alternatively, she may seek reassurance from others while finding it difficult to establish boundaries.

These responses are possible consequences, not inevitable outcomes.

The experience of betrayal can also extend to institutions.

If police dismiss a complaint or authorities fail to provide protection, a survivor may lose confidence in the justice system.

If legal proceedings require repeated testimony without appropriate safeguards, the process itself may become distressing.

Restoring trust therefore involves more than psychological treatment.

It also requires institutions to behave consistently, respectfully and fairly.

When Shame Becomes Another Burden

Survivors of sexual violence or forced marriage may encounter stigma within their communities.

In some settings, a girl's perceived sexual history is closely connected to expectations concerning family honour.

This can create additional suffering for someone who has already experienced exploitation.

A survivor may fear that neighbours will discuss her experience.

She may worry that future relationships will be affected.

Her family may seek privacy because of anticipated social judgement.

Such pressures can discourage individuals from reporting abuse or seeking healthcare.

However, stigma is not universal.

Families and communities may also provide strong support and actively defend survivors.

The relevant question is how social attitudes affect access to protection and recovery.

Responsibility for violence belongs to the perpetrator, not to the person subjected to it.

Services should therefore avoid practices that reinforce shame or imply that a survivor's worth has been diminished.

Family Relationships After a Disputed Marriage

When a girl returns to her family following a disputed marriage, relationships may have changed significantly.

Parents may experience relief, anger, grief or uncertainty.

The girl may have conflicting feelings about the events and the people involved.

She may wish to resume contact with relatives while also seeking greater independence.

Some families provide unconditional support.

Others may struggle to understand the girl's decisions or experiences.

In cases involving religious conversion, disagreements may continue even after legal proceedings.

An adult woman may maintain beliefs or relationships that her family opposes.

A minor may need protection from both an alleged exploiter and relatives who respond through punishment or intimidation.

Recovery should therefore not be defined solely as reconciliation.

Where reconciliation is safe and desired, family support can be valuable.

Where it is not, alternative arrangements may be necessary.

The individual's rights and safety must remain central.

Education: The Years That Cannot Be Recovered Easily

One of the most significant consequences of child marriage is the interruption of education.

A girl may leave school because of marriage, domestic responsibilities, pregnancy or restrictions imposed by her husband or relatives.

Even a relatively short interruption can create difficulties.

She may fall behind academically.

Her former classmates may progress to higher grades.

Returning may require additional financial resources or permission from family members.

If she has become a mother, childcare responsibilities can make regular attendance difficult.

UNICEF identifies interrupted schooling as one of the major consequences associated with child marriage.

The effects extend beyond academic achievement.

Education provides opportunities to develop confidence, social relationships and practical skills.

It also increases the range of choices available in adulthood.

When education ends prematurely, the consequences can persist for decades.

Returning to School After Marriage

Re-entering education is not always straightforward.

Some girls may feel uncomfortable returning to classrooms with younger pupils.

Others may face administrative barriers or lack the documentation required for enrolment.

Pregnant girls and adolescent mothers may encounter discriminatory attitudes.

Families may also believe that marriage has permanently changed a girl's responsibilities.

Effective reintegration programmes need to address these practical obstacles.

Flexible learning arrangements may help students who cannot immediately return to full-time education.

Alternative education programmes can support those who have missed several years.

Vocational training may be appropriate for older adolescents and adults.

However, vocational training should not automatically replace formal education.

Girls should have meaningful opportunities to choose their educational pathways.

The objective is to restore possibilities rather than impose another limited set of expectations.

Economic Dependence and the Cycle of Poverty

Education and financial independence are closely connected.

Girls who leave school early may have fewer opportunities to obtain stable employment.

They may lack qualifications required for professional work.

If they marry young, they may become economically dependent on their husbands.

This dependence can make leaving an abusive relationship more difficult.

A woman may fear losing her home or the ability to support her children.

She may have limited access to savings, property or independent income.

UNFPA identifies restricted economic opportunities as an important long-term consequence of child marriage.

The effects can also extend to the next generation.

Children growing up in households affected by poverty may face barriers to education and healthcare.

However, these outcomes are not inevitable.

Access to schooling, employment, financial services and social protection can help interrupt cycles of disadvantage.

Economic independence is therefore an important part of both prevention and recovery.

The Difficulty of Starting Again

A survivor who leaves a forced marriage may need to rebuild almost every aspect of daily life.

She may require somewhere safe to live.

She may need identity documents or access to a bank account.

She may have little work experience.

If she has children, she may need childcare and financial support.

Legal proceedings concerning divorce, maintenance or custody may remain unresolved.

These challenges can make independence difficult even after the immediate threat has ended.

A successful recovery programme should therefore consider practical needs alongside psychological wellbeing.

Employment training may be valuable.

So may assistance obtaining documents, accessing healthcare or finding suitable accommodation.

The most effective support is often the support that allows an individual to make her own decisions.

When Legal Proceedings Continue for Years

Legal proceedings can create additional uncertainty.

A family may challenge the validity of a marriage while criminal allegations remain under investigation.

Questions concerning age, consent and religious conversion may require separate judicial consideration.

The individual concerned may be asked to attend repeated hearings.

Travel costs and legal fees can create financial pressure.

The process may also expose private information to public scrutiny.

Even when a case ends, practical difficulties may remain.

A favourable judgment does not automatically provide education, employment or healthcare.

A criminal conviction does not necessarily resolve questions concerning family relationships or financial support.

This is why legal assistance should be connected to longer-term services.

Justice is important, but recovery requires more than a courtroom decision.

The Consequences of Public Exposure

Cases involving alleged forced conversion and child marriage sometimes attract extensive media attention.

Photographs of missing girls may circulate online.

Families may give interviews.

Religious organisations may publish allegations.

Social media users may share documents or personal information.

Public attention can encourage authorities to investigate.

However, it can also create risks.

A minor's identity may become permanently associated with allegations of sexual exploitation or religious conflict.

Even if the facts remain disputed, online material may continue circulating.

The consequences can affect education, employment and future relationships.

Journalists and advocacy organisations therefore have a responsibility to protect privacy.

The public interest in examining institutional failures does not automatically justify identifying a child.

Where a survivor chooses to speak publicly as an adult, her informed consent and control over her story should remain central.

The Impact on Siblings and Families

The consequences of alleged abduction or forced marriage may extend beyond the individual girl.

Parents may experience prolonged distress while searching for a missing daughter.

Siblings may be affected by changes in family routines, financial pressures or public attention.

Legal expenses can reduce household resources.

A parent may miss work to attend hearings.

Families may relocate because of safety concerns or social tensions.

However, family experiences vary.

Some relatives become important sources of strength and support.

Others may disagree over how to respond.

Assistance should therefore consider the wider family context without allowing relatives' interests to override the rights of the girl or woman concerned.

Children Born Within Forced or Underage Marriages

Some girls become mothers while still legally children themselves.

This creates responsibilities extending beyond the original marriage.

A young mother may require support with healthcare, education and childcare.

Questions may arise concerning the child's birth registration, nationality, maintenance and custody.

If the marriage is later challenged or dissolved, the legal position of the child must be protected.

Children should not lose access to essential rights because of disputes concerning their parents' relationship.

The principle is particularly important where the marriage was unlawful or coercive.

The child is not responsible for the circumstances of conception or birth.

Governments must ensure access to identity documentation, healthcare and education.

Protecting the rights of the mother and child requires coordinated legal and social support.

Iraq: The Long-Term Consequences of ISIS Captivity

The experiences of Yazidi survivors in Iraq demonstrate the severe and enduring consequences of organised sexual violence.

Following the ISIS attack on Sinjar in August 2014, women and girls were abducted, enslaved and subjected to repeated abuse.

United Nations investigations documented killings, forced religious conversion, sexual slavery and family separation.

Survivors returning from captivity often faced communities devastated by violence and displacement.

Many had lost relatives.

Homes and public infrastructure had been destroyed.

Some families remained separated for years.

Psychological support and healthcare were often difficult to access.

These circumstances differ fundamentally from child marriage arising from family or economic pressure.

They involve international crimes committed as part of an organised campaign of persecution.

Nevertheless, the experiences illustrate why escape from captivity cannot be equated with complete recovery.

Missing Relatives and Unresolved Grief

For some Yazidi survivors, uncertainty about missing relatives remains a major source of suffering.

Family members may have been killed, abducted or separated during displacement.

Where their fate remains unknown, survivors may be unable to obtain reliable answers.

This uncertainty can complicate mourning and family reunification.

Efforts to identify missing persons and investigate mass graves therefore form an important part of recovery.

Such work also contributes to accountability and historical documentation.

However, the needs of families extend beyond forensic investigation.

They may require legal assistance, psychological support and help obtaining official documents.

The absence of information can affect inheritance, marital status and other legal matters.

Recovery is therefore closely connected to the wider process of establishing what happened during the atrocities.

Children Born During Captivity

One of the most sensitive consequences of ISIS sexual slavery concerns children born as a result of rape.

Their mothers may face difficult decisions concerning family relationships, religious identity and community acceptance.

Legal documentation can also present challenges.

United Nations reporting has identified barriers affecting mothers and children seeking identity documents and access to services.

These difficulties must be addressed without stigmatising either the mother or the child.

A child born from sexual violence bears no responsibility for the crime.

The child's rights to identity, healthcare, education and protection must be respected.

At the same time, survivors should not be pressured to make decisions about family relationships according to the expectations of outsiders.

Support must be sensitive to individual circumstances and grounded in the rights of both mother and child.

Rebuilding Communities, Not Only Individual Lives

The recovery of survivors depends partly on the recovery of their communities.

A woman may receive psychological assistance but remain unable to return home because housing has been destroyed.

A girl may wish to resume education but find that local schools are not functioning.

Families may face unemployment, insecurity or inadequate healthcare.

These conditions can prolong displacement and economic dependence.

Organisations working in Sinjar have therefore emphasised reconstruction alongside survivor assistance.

Schools, medical facilities, livelihoods and public services are essential to long-term recovery.

The same principle applies in other conflict-affected settings.

Individual resilience is important, but survivors should not be expected to overcome structural barriers alone.

Afghanistan: When Recovery Is Restricted by the Political Environment

In Afghanistan, girls who experience forced marriage or other forms of coercion face additional obstacles because of restrictions imposed under Taliban rule.

The exclusion of girls from formal secondary education and women from universities has sharply limited educational opportunities.

Restrictions affecting women's employment and public participation have also reduced pathways towards financial independence.

These conditions can make it more difficult for girls and women to leave unwanted relationships or rebuild their lives.

However, the experiences of Afghan women are not uniform.

Family circumstances, location and access to support can influence available options.

The broader concern is that recovery requires opportunities which the political environment may restrict.

A girl cannot easily regain educational opportunities if the state prevents her from attending school.

A woman cannot readily establish financial independence if her access to employment is severely limited.

Legal protection and personal recovery therefore depend on wider political and institutional conditions.

Syria: The Long-Term Effects of Displacement

In Syria and among displaced Syrian communities, child marriage can intersect with the consequences of prolonged conflict.

Families may have lost homes, income and access to education.

Girls who married during displacement may now be responsible for children while still facing insecure living conditions.

Some may lack the documentation required to access services.

Others may struggle to return to education or obtain employment.

The consequences can continue even when immediate security conditions improve.

Reconstruction alone does not automatically restore lost schooling or reverse years of economic hardship.

Humanitarian programmes therefore need to support girls and young women beyond the immediate emergency.

Education, healthcare, legal assistance and livelihoods all form part of longer-term recovery.

Why Psychological Support Must Be Survivor-Centred

Psychological assistance should not assume that every survivor has the same needs.

Some individuals may want counselling.

Others may prioritise practical support, education or employment.

Some may wish to discuss their experiences.

Others may prefer privacy.

A survivor-centred approach respects these differences.

It seeks informed consent and avoids unnecessary pressure to recount traumatic events.

It also recognises that recovery does not follow a fixed timetable.

A person may make progress in one area while continuing to experience difficulties elsewhere.

For children, services should be appropriate to their age and developmental needs.

For adults, the right to make independent decisions remains central.

The objective is to support wellbeing and autonomy rather than impose an externally defined idea of recovery.

The Importance of Safe Relationships

Supportive relationships can play an important role in recovery.

Trusted relatives, friends, teachers and community members may provide stability.

They may help a girl return to education or access healthcare.

They may also offer reassurance during legal proceedings.

However, not every family or community relationship is safe.

Some individuals may face pressure to conceal abuse or return to an unwanted marriage.

Others may encounter restrictions justified as protection.

The quality of support therefore matters more than the mere presence of relatives.

Effective assistance should help survivors identify relationships in which they can exercise their rights without intimidation.

Why Financial Independence Matters

Financial independence can expand the choices available to survivors.

A woman who can support herself may be better positioned to leave an abusive relationship.

A girl who completes her education may have greater opportunities to determine her future.

Employment can also contribute to confidence and social participation.

However, economic independence should not be treated as a simple solution to every form of harm.

Survivors may face discrimination, childcare responsibilities or limited labour-market opportunities.

Some require medical or psychological support before employment becomes realistic.

Programmes should therefore provide flexible pathways.

Education, vocational training, childcare, legal assistance and financial services may all be relevant.

The objective is not merely to help survivors earn money.

It is to reduce dependence and strengthen their ability to make decisions.

The Risk of Being Defined by the Past

Survivors may find that others continue to identify them primarily through what happened to them.

A girl may become known publicly as a victim of forced marriage.

A Yazidi woman may be described almost exclusively through her experience of ISIS captivity.

Such descriptions can obscure the rest of a person's identity.

Survivors are students, parents, professionals, community members and individuals with interests and ambitions.

Some become advocates.

Others prefer private lives.

Neither choice is more legitimate.

Journalism and humanitarian advocacy should recognise the harm suffered without reducing people to that harm.

The purpose of documenting abuses is to establish responsibility and improve protection.

It should not permanently define survivors through their victimisation.

Recovery Is Not the Same as Forgetting

Recovery does not necessarily mean that an individual no longer remembers what happened.

Some survivors continue to experience grief or distress while building meaningful lives.

Others may feel that their experiences have influenced their identity or priorities.

There is no single correct outcome.

The expectation that survivors should eventually forget or forgive can create additional pressure.

Justice, accountability and personal recovery are related but distinct processes.

A survivor may seek criminal prosecution.

Another may prioritise education or family reunification.

Some may pursue several goals simultaneously.

Support should respect these choices.

The objective is to make it possible for individuals to live with dignity and independence, whether or not the past can ever be fully resolved.

What Effective Long-Term Support Looks Like

The evidence examined in this chapter points towards the need for sustained, coordinated assistance.

Immediate safety remains essential.

However, longer-term recovery may also require healthcare, education, legal support, secure accommodation and economic opportunities.

For survivors of sexual violence, confidential medical and psychological services are particularly important.

For girls whose schooling was interrupted, flexible educational pathways can help restore opportunities.

For young mothers, childcare and financial assistance may be necessary.

For survivors of conflict-related atrocities, documentation, reparations and family reunification may form part of recovery.

These services should not depend solely on short-term public attention.

The needs of survivors can continue long after an individual case disappears from the news.

What This Means

The long-term consequences of child marriage and coercion reveal why prevention and legal protection are so important.

An unlawful marriage may last only a short period, yet its effects can continue for years.

Education may be interrupted.

Financial dependence may develop.

Pregnancy or parenthood may create additional responsibilities.

Violence may affect physical and psychological wellbeing.

Legal proceedings and public attention may produce further difficulties.

However, these outcomes are not inevitable.

Access to education, healthcare, justice and economic opportunities can make recovery possible.

The central question is whether institutions provide the support necessary for survivors to rebuild their lives.

Conclusion: A Future Must Remain Possible

A childhood interrupted by coercion cannot simply be restored through a court order.

Lost years of education may require substantial effort to recover.

Physical injuries may need treatment.

Psychological distress may continue.

Relationships may have changed, and financial independence may remain difficult.

Yet the future is not determined entirely by the past.

With appropriate support, survivors can return to education, develop careers, establish safe relationships and make independent decisions.

The responsibility of governments and humanitarian organisations is to ensure that these opportunities are genuinely available.

Protection must extend beyond the moment of rescue.

Justice must extend beyond the courtroom.

And recovery must be measured not only by the absence of immediate danger, but by the presence of meaningful choices.

A girl who has lost part of her childhood should not also lose the possibility of determining her future.

Chapter 14

Why Protection Still Fails — And What Must Change

Across Pakistan, Afghanistan, Syria and Iraq, the circumstances that place girls at risk differ considerably.

In Pakistan, human rights organisations have documented allegations of abduction, forced religious conversion and marriage involving Christian and Hindu girls. Disputes over age, consent and the validity of marriage documents have exposed weaknesses in legal protection.

In Afghanistan, restrictions imposed under Taliban rule have severely limited girls' access to education and women's opportunities for independence. Poverty, displacement and the absence of effective legal safeguards create additional vulnerabilities.

In Syria, years of conflict have disrupted education, livelihoods and public institutions, contributing to circumstances in which some families consider early marriage a response to insecurity.

In Iraq, the legacy of conflict includes both child marriage and the exceptionally grave crimes committed by ISIS against Yazidi women and girls.

These experiences cannot be reduced to one explanation.

Not every early marriage is forced in the same way. Not every disputed religious conversion involves coercion. And the systematic enslavement of women and girls by ISIS must be distinguished from marriage practices within ordinary civilian communities.

Nevertheless, the evidence examined throughout this report reveals recurring institutional weaknesses.

Laws may exist but remain poorly enforced.

Families may lack access to justice.

Girls may be unable to obtain education or independent financial support.

Authorities may fail to investigate allegations effectively.

And social or religious power can sometimes influence decisions that should be governed by individual rights and the rule of law.

The final question is therefore not simply why these abuses occur.

It is why protection continues to fail — and what governments, institutions and communities can realistically do to change that.

The Gap Between Legal Protection and Reality

Many countries have laws intended to protect children from exploitation and unlawful marriage.

International human rights treaties also establish standards concerning consent, religious freedom, education and protection from violence.

Yet the existence of legislation does not guarantee that individuals can exercise those rights.

A girl may be legally protected against child marriage while lacking the documents required to establish her age.

A family may have the right to report an alleged abduction but encounter delays in obtaining an investigation.

A court may recognise the importance of consent while failing to examine the circumstances in which a statement was made.

These failures are not necessarily caused by the absence of legal principles.

They can result from weak institutions, inconsistent procedures, limited resources and unequal access to justice.

Effective protection therefore requires more than passing laws.

It requires ensuring that those laws can be enforced in the circumstances where vulnerable people need them most.

Why Police Investigations Matter

The first response to an allegation of abduction or forced marriage can determine the direction of an entire case.

Police may need to locate a missing girl, establish her age, identify witnesses and examine possible evidence of coercion.

If the investigation is delayed, important information may be lost.

If officers assume that a marriage certificate resolves the matter, allegations of kidnapping or intimidation may remain unexamined.

If they automatically accept a family's accusation without considering the individual's own account, they may undermine the rights of an adult woman who acted voluntarily.

Both errors are serious.

Investigators must approach each case without predetermined conclusions.

Reliable procedures should include age verification, examination of documents, assessment of possible threats and appropriate opportunities for independent testimony.

Where the individual is a minor, child-protection safeguards must apply.

Where the individual is an adult, her autonomy must be respected.

Specialised police guidance introduced in Sindh demonstrates that procedural reform is possible.

However, its effectiveness will depend on training, supervision and consistent implementation.

The Problem of Unequal Access to Justice

Legal rights are less meaningful when people cannot afford to enforce them.

Families pursuing complaints may face lawyers' fees, transport costs and repeated court appearances.

Those living in rural areas may have limited access to legal services.

Economically disadvantaged families may struggle to obtain official documents or challenge decisions.

These barriers can be particularly serious for members of marginalised communities.

In Pakistan, some Christian and Hindu families have reported difficulties obtaining effective assistance in disputed conversion and marriage cases.

Such experiences should not be interpreted as proof that every institution discriminates against religious minorities.

They do, however, demonstrate the importance of examining whether legal protection is equally accessible.

A justice system cannot be considered effective solely because its laws are formally neutral.

It must also provide realistic opportunities for vulnerable individuals to seek remedies.

Legal aid, accessible courts and independent oversight are therefore essential.

When Age Documentation Is Missing or Disputed

Reliable birth registration is one of the most practical safeguards against unlawful child marriage.

Where a girl's age is disputed, official documentation can help determine whether statutory protections apply.

However, birth registration is not always complete.

Families may possess inconsistent records.

Documents may contain errors.

Marriage certificates may record ages that differ from school or civil-registration documents.

These disputes can have major legal consequences.

A girl incorrectly classified as an adult may be denied protections intended for children.

An adult woman whose age is wrongly disputed may face unjustified restrictions on her autonomy.

Authorities therefore need clear procedures for verifying age.

Marriage registrars should be required to examine reliable identity documentation.

Courts should assess conflicting records carefully.

Medical age estimation, where used, should be treated as an estimate rather than a perfectly precise determination.

Strengthening civil registration is not simply an administrative reform.

It is a means of protecting legal identity and ensuring that age-based safeguards can be enforced.

Religious Freedom Must Include Freedom From Coercion

Religion is central to some of the disputes examined in this report.

In Pakistan, allegations involving Christian and Hindu girls frequently concern conversion to Islam followed by marriage.

Religious freedom protects an individual's right to hold and change beliefs.

It also protects against coercion intended to force someone to adopt or abandon a religion.

These principles must be applied together.

An adult woman who voluntarily converts should not lose her freedom because her family disapproves.

Equally, a conversion certificate should not prevent investigation of credible allegations of abduction, threats or unlawful confinement.

Religious freedom belongs to the individual.

It cannot be exercised on her behalf by a husband, family member or religious authority.

For children, the assessment must also reflect their age, evolving capacities and entitlement to protection.

The challenge for legal institutions is to distinguish genuine religious choice from circumstances in which religious language is used to legitimise coercion.

The Responsibility of Religious Leaders

Religious leaders can influence attitudes towards marriage, family authority and the rights of girls.

Their role can be constructive.

They may encourage families to keep daughters in education, oppose violence and refuse to facilitate unlawful marriages.

They can also help explain that coercion is incompatible with genuine religious commitment.

However, religious authority can become problematic when it is used to justify conduct prohibited by law.

A religious ceremony does not establish that a child is legally capable of marrying.

A declaration of conversion does not prove that threats or intimidation were absent.

Religious leaders should therefore support, rather than replace, lawful safeguarding procedures.

This responsibility is not confined to one religion.

Child marriage and coercive family practices occur across different religious and cultural settings.

The relevant standard is whether individuals are protected from exploitation and able to exercise their rights.

Why Child Marriage Cannot Be Explained by Religion Alone

Religious interpretations can influence marriage practices, but they are not the only factor.

Poverty, limited education, gender inequality, insecurity and family expectations also play important roles.

In humanitarian settings, marriage may be perceived as a response to financial hardship or fears about safety.

In more stable communities, longstanding social expectations may contribute to early marriage.

The influence of religion varies between countries, communities and individual families.

It would therefore be misleading to suggest that child marriage is exclusively a religious problem.

It would be equally misleading to ignore cases in which religious authority is invoked to defend the practice.

Effective reform requires examining how different factors interact.

A family may cite tradition while also facing severe economic hardship.

A religious leader may support early marriage while another leader from the same faith argues for stronger protection.

These differences matter.

They demonstrate why broad accusations against entire religious communities are neither accurate nor useful.

The Importance of Keeping Girls in Education

Education is one of the strongest foundations for expanding girls' opportunities.

Schools provide academic learning, social connections and pathways towards employment.

They may also offer contact with adults who can identify signs of exploitation or distress.

When education becomes inaccessible, girls can lose an important source of independence.

In Afghanistan, restrictions imposed by the Taliban have excluded girls from formal secondary education and women from universities.

In Syria, conflict and displacement have disrupted schooling.

In parts of Pakistan, poverty and unequal access to education can limit opportunities for girls.

These circumstances differ, but they produce a common concern.

When girls have fewer educational options, their ability to influence decisions about their futures may be reduced.

Preventing child marriage therefore requires sustained investment in education.

That includes access to secondary schooling, safe transport, qualified teachers and opportunities for girls whose education has already been interrupted.

Economic Security and Family Decisions

Poverty can influence decisions about marriage.

Families experiencing financial hardship may regard marriage as a way to reduce household expenses.

Some may believe that an older husband can provide stability.

Others may face pressure because employment and educational opportunities are limited.

These circumstances do not justify unlawful marriage.

However, they help explain why legal prohibition alone may be insufficient.

A family may understand that early marriage carries risks while continuing to face severe economic insecurity.

Social protection programmes can reduce these pressures.

Assistance with school costs, food security and household income may help families keep girls in education.

For adolescents and young women, vocational training and access to employment can expand alternatives.

The objective is to make lawful and independent choices more realistic.

Why Legal Reform Must Be Carefully Designed

Recent reforms in Pakistan demonstrate increasing legislative attention to child marriage.

Sindh established eighteen as the minimum marriage age for both sexes.

Islamabad introduced new restrictions in 2025.

Punjab adopted significant reforms in 2026.

These developments strengthen statutory protection.

However, the legal consequences of unlawful marriage can remain complicated.

Criminal liability and marriage validity are not always determined by the same provisions.

A statute may punish an adult for marrying a child while leaving separate questions concerning the civil status of the marriage.

These distinctions can create uncertainty.

Effective legislation should clearly address minimum age, registration requirements, criminal offences and available remedies.

It should also protect children who are already in unlawful marriages.

Legal reform must avoid creating situations in which a girl loses access to maintenance, documentation or other essential rights because adults violated the law.

The purpose of child-marriage legislation should be protection, not additional punishment of the child.

Protecting Consent Without Undermining Autonomy

Consent remains one of the most difficult questions in disputed marriage cases.

A girl or woman may state that she agreed to marry.

Her family may insist that she was threatened.

The alleged husband may deny wrongdoing.

Courts must evaluate these competing claims through evidence.

They should examine age, legal capacity and the circumstances surrounding the decision.

They should also consider whether the individual had access to independent advice and could communicate without intimidation.

However, the legal system must not assume that a woman is coerced simply because she rejects her family's wishes.

Adult women have the right to make lawful decisions about religion and marriage.

For minors, the law imposes additional safeguards.

A child's expressed willingness does not automatically authorise a marriage prohibited by statute.

The objective is to protect genuine choice while recognising that children require specific legal protection.

The Need for Independent Legal Representation

Independent legal assistance can help ensure that the individual's interests are not overshadowed by competing adult claims.

Parents may seek the return of a daughter.

A husband may seek recognition of a marriage.

Religious organisations may focus on the legitimacy of a conversion.

The girl or woman concerned may have interests that differ from all of them.

A lawyer representing her independently can explain available rights and remedies.

For minors, legal representation should work alongside appropriate child-protection services.

For adults, it should support autonomy and informed decision-making.

Independent representation is particularly important where there are allegations of intimidation or unequal power.

It can help prevent legal proceedings from becoming solely a dispute between families and husbands.

Safe Accommodation and Protection Services

Legal proceedings can take time.

During that period, an individual may require protection.

Safe accommodation may be necessary where credible threats exist.

However, protective arrangements must be appropriate to the person's age and circumstances.

For children, decisions should prioritise safety and wellbeing while respecting their views.

For adults, protection should not become an unnecessary restriction on liberty.

A woman who voluntarily left her family should not automatically be returned to relatives who oppose her choices.

Equally, a minor facing exploitation should not be left without safeguarding because she expresses a wish to remain with an adult.

Protective services must therefore assess risks from all relevant parties.

The objective is to provide safety without replacing one form of coercion with another.

Why Survivors Need Long-Term Support

The consequences of child marriage and coercion can continue after the immediate situation has ended.

A girl may have lost years of education.

She may require healthcare or psychological support.

She may have become financially dependent on an adult.

If she has children, she may face additional responsibilities.

A court decision cannot automatically resolve these problems.

Long-term recovery requires coordinated services.

Education, healthcare, legal assistance, housing and economic opportunities may all be necessary.

Support should be survivor-centred.

Not every individual has experienced the same harm.

Not every survivor wishes to speak publicly.

And not every person involved in a disputed conversion case has experienced coercion.

Effective services must respond to individual circumstances rather than impose assumptions.

Afghanistan: Protection Cannot Exist Without Basic Freedoms

Afghanistan demonstrates how the political environment can undermine the foundations of protection.

Restrictions imposed under Taliban rule have sharply reduced girls' educational opportunities and women's participation in public life.

These restrictions affect more than education.

They can reduce access to employment, independent income and support networks.

They also complicate the work of organisations providing services to vulnerable women and girls.

The Taliban issued a decree in December 2021 stating that women should not be forced into marriage.

However, that declaration did not establish a general statutory minimum marriage age of eighteen or resolve wider concerns about women's rights.

The existence of a prohibition against forced marriage is therefore insufficient when broader restrictions limit women's independence and access to remedies.

Meaningful protection requires education, legal safeguards and opportunities for women to participate in society.

Without these foundations, formal declarations may have limited practical effect.

Syria: Protection Requires Reconstruction

In Syria, the consequences of prolonged conflict have created vulnerabilities that cannot be addressed through marriage legislation alone.

Families may lack secure housing, income or access to schools.

Civil documentation may be incomplete.

Healthcare and legal services may be difficult to obtain.

Displacement can also weaken community support networks.

Preventing child marriage therefore requires rebuilding institutions and essential services.

Education must be accessible.

Civil registration systems must function.

Families need economic opportunities.

Girls and women must be able to obtain protection from violence.

Political changes do not automatically resolve these needs.

The effects of years of conflict can continue long after the military or political situation changes.

Iraq: Justice for ISIS Survivors Remains Essential

Iraq faces a distinct responsibility towards survivors of ISIS atrocities.

The genocide against the Yazidis involved systematic killings, abduction, sexual slavery and forced religious conversion.

These crimes cannot be treated as ordinary disputes over marriage.

They require accountability under the relevant national and international legal frameworks.

Iraq's Yazidi Survivors Law provides a basis for reparations and support.

However, implementation and access to services remain important concerns.

Survivors may require healthcare, psychological assistance, education and support rebuilding their communities.

Families of missing persons also need continued efforts to establish what happened to their relatives.

Accountability is essential.

But justice should not be measured solely by prosecutions.

It must also include meaningful assistance to survivors and recognition of their rights.

The Role of International Institutions

International organisations can contribute to protection through research, monitoring, technical assistance and humanitarian programmes.

UNICEF works on child protection and education.

UNFPA addresses reproductive health and gender-based violence.

UN human rights mechanisms monitor violations and encourage governments to meet their obligations.

Other organisations provide legal support, document atrocities or assist displaced communities.

These activities can strengthen national protection systems.

However, international institutions cannot replace domestic responsibility.

Governments remain responsible for enforcing laws, investigating crimes and providing essential public services.

International pressure may encourage reform, but lasting change requires institutions capable of implementing it.

Why Reliable Data Is Essential

Effective policy requires reliable information.

Yet child marriage, forced marriage, trafficking and religious coercion are not always recorded consistently.

Some cases may never be reported.

Others may be documented by advocacy organisations but not result in criminal proceedings.

Different organisations may use different definitions.

This creates difficulties when comparing statistics.

A reported allegation is not equivalent to a conviction.

A child-marriage estimate is not necessarily a measure of forced conversion.

Figures concerning ISIS sexual slavery describe a different category of harm.

Governments and researchers should therefore improve data collection while protecting privacy.

Information should distinguish allegations, investigations, prosecutions and judicial outcomes.

Where possible, it should also identify relevant age groups and geographic patterns.

Transparent data can help institutions evaluate whether reforms are effective.

The Responsibility of the Media

Journalists have an important role in examining child marriage and alleged forced conversion.

Responsible reporting can expose institutional failures and bring attention to neglected cases.

However, inaccurate or sensational coverage can cause additional harm.

Publishing a minor's identity may expose her to stigma or retaliation.

Presenting allegations as established facts can undermine fair legal proceedings.

Describing every interfaith marriage as suspicious can reinforce religious hostility.

Equally, dismissing credible allegations because they involve sensitive religious questions can conceal serious abuses.

The responsibility of journalism is to establish what can be verified.

Reports should distinguish allegations from judicial findings.

They should explain relevant laws and historical context.

They should also protect the privacy and dignity of vulnerable individuals.

The objective is accountability, not confrontation between religious communities.

What Governments Must Prioritise

The findings of this report point towards several practical priorities.

Governments should establish and enforce clear minimum marriage ages consistent with international child-rights standards.

They should strengthen birth registration and marriage documentation.

Police need specialised procedures for investigating alleged abduction, forced marriage and religious coercion.

Courts should ensure that age and consent are assessed through reliable evidence.

Independent legal assistance must be available to vulnerable individuals.

Education should remain accessible, including for girls who are married, pregnant or already mothers.

Survivors of violence need healthcare, safe accommodation and long-term support.

Religious freedom must be protected without allowing coercion to be concealed behind religious ceremonies.

And public institutions must ensure that legal protection is available regardless of religion, gender or economic position.

These priorities require sustained resources and political commitment.

The Importance of Community Participation

Legal reform is more likely to succeed when communities understand and support its objectives.

Parents, teachers, religious leaders and local organisations can contribute to preventing child marriage.

Community engagement should address the concerns that influence family decisions.

These may include poverty, safety, education and social expectations.

However, engagement should not mean allowing harmful practices to continue in the name of tradition.

The rights of children and the prohibition of coercion must remain central.

Effective programmes can combine legal information with practical support.

They can also create opportunities for girls to participate in discussions affecting their futures.

The objective is not to impose a single cultural model.

It is to ensure that every girl has access to protection, education and meaningful choices.

The Limits of Legislation Alone

Laws are necessary, but they are not sufficient.

A government may establish eighteen as the minimum marriage age while failing to enforce registration requirements.

A police force may receive new guidelines without adequate training.

A court may recognise individual rights while remaining inaccessible to poor families.

An education programme may encourage girls to remain in school while families cannot afford transport.

These examples demonstrate why reform must be coordinated.

Legal protection, education, economic support and public accountability reinforce one another.

Weakness in one area can undermine progress elsewhere.

The challenge is therefore institutional as much as legislative.

A state must not only recognise rights.

It must create the conditions in which those rights can be exercised.

What This Means

The cases examined throughout this report reveal a central contradiction.

Girls may be recognised as rights-holders under national and international law while remaining vulnerable to decisions made by more powerful adults.

Religious freedom may be formally protected while allegations of forced conversion remain difficult to investigate.

Child marriage may be prohibited while informal ceremonies continue.

Survivors may receive public recognition while struggling to obtain education, healthcare or financial independence.

These contradictions are not inevitable.

They reflect choices about legislation, enforcement, public services and political priorities.

The solutions differ between countries.

Pakistan requires consistent enforcement of child-marriage laws, impartial investigations and stronger protection for vulnerable minorities.

Afghanistan requires the restoration of basic freedoms and meaningful opportunities for women and girls.

Syria requires sustained reconstruction and support for conflict-affected families.

Iraq requires continued accountability and long-term assistance for survivors of ISIS crimes.

Across all four countries, the central principle remains the same.

Protection must be measured by the rights individuals can exercise in practice, not simply by the promises contained in official documents.

Conclusion: The Right to a Childhood

Childhood should not be determined by the power of adults, the circumstances of war or the expectations of a community.

A girl should be able to attend school without facing pressure to marry.

She should be protected from abduction, exploitation and violence.

She should not be compelled to adopt a religion.

And when she reaches adulthood, she should be free to make lawful decisions about marriage and belief without coercion from relatives, partners or authorities.

The experiences examined in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Syria and Iraq demonstrate how difficult these principles can be to enforce.

They also show that progress is possible.

Legal reforms can strengthen protection.

Human rights organisations can expose institutional failures.

Education can expand opportunities.

Survivor-led initiatives can help rebuild lives.

And courts can uphold individual rights when they examine evidence impartially.

But lasting change requires more than legislation or public condemnation.

It requires governments willing to enforce the law, institutions capable of protecting vulnerable individuals and communities prepared to challenge practices that place children at risk.

The protection of girls should never depend on their religion, their family's influence or the country in which they were born.

Their rights are not privileges granted by adults. They are obligations that societies and governments have a responsibility to uphold.

Final Conclusion

Beyond the Headlines: Protecting the Right to Choose

Behind every reported case of child marriage, alleged forced religious conversion or abduction is an individual whose future may be shaped by decisions made by others.

For some girls, those decisions involve marriage before adulthood. For others, they involve pressure to abandon their religious identity, leave education or remain in relationships they cannot freely escape.

In the most extreme circumstances, as demonstrated by the crimes committed against Yazidi women and girls by ISIS, religious persecution has been accompanied by organised sexual violence, enslavement and the destruction of entire communities.

These experiences differ in their causes, circumstances and legal consequences. They should not be treated as interchangeable.

Yet they raise a common question: who has the power to determine a girl's future, and what happens when the institutions responsible for protecting her fail?

When the Law Exists but Protection Does Not

Throughout this investigation, one recurring problem has emerged.

Legal protection does not always translate into practical safety.

Pakistan has introduced significant reforms addressing child marriage, yet allegations involving abduction, religious conversion and disputed consent continue to raise questions about enforcement and access to justice.

In Afghanistan, restrictions on women's rights and girls' education have severely limited opportunities for independence.

In Syria, prolonged conflict and displacement have contributed to circumstances in which some families face powerful economic and social pressures surrounding marriage.

In Iraq, survivors of ISIS atrocities continue to require justice, recognition and long-term assistance.

The responsibility of governments extends beyond adopting legislation.

Police must investigate allegations impartially. Courts must examine evidence carefully. Children must have access to education and protection. Survivors must be able to obtain healthcare, legal assistance and opportunities to rebuild their lives.

Without these safeguards, rights can remain promises rather than realities.

Religious Freedom and the Right to Refuse

Religious freedom is fundamental to this investigation.

Every adult has the right to hold religious beliefs, change religion and make lawful decisions about marriage.

That freedom must be protected even when families or communities strongly disagree.

However, religious freedom cannot justify coercion.

A conversion obtained through threats is not an expression of genuine religious choice.

A religious marriage ceremony does not remove the legal protections owed to children.

And no religious or cultural tradition should place an individual beyond the protection of the law.

The same principles apply regardless of religion.

The purpose of protecting Christian and Hindu girls from alleged forced conversion is not to deny the legitimacy of voluntary conversion to Islam.

It is to ensure that religious decisions are genuinely free.

A Childhood Should Not Be Negotiable

Child marriage is not only a question of tradition or family preference.

It can affect education, physical health, financial independence and future opportunities.

Girls who leave school early may struggle to return.

Those who become mothers during adolescence may face additional responsibilities and health risks.

Survivors of violence may require support long after the immediate danger has ended.

These consequences demonstrate why prevention is essential.

Education, reliable birth registration, economic support and effective child-protection systems are not secondary concerns.

They are among the foundations of meaningful freedom.

A girl cannot exercise genuine choice if the alternatives available to her have already been removed.

The Responsibility to Establish the Truth

This investigation has also highlighted the importance of distinguishing allegations from verified facts.

Not every disputed marriage is forced.

Not every religious conversion is coerced.

Not every family complaint establishes that a crime occurred.

Equally, the existence of marriage documents or a declaration of consent does not automatically disprove allegations of intimidation or exploitation.

These distinctions matter for justice.

They also matter for journalism.

Reporting on religious minorities, gender-based violence and marriage requires careful examination of evidence without allowing political or religious loyalties to determine the conclusions.

The protection of vulnerable girls should never become an excuse for hostility towards entire communities.

Nor should concerns about religious sensitivity prevent credible allegations from being investigated.

The Future Must Belong to the Individual

The organisations, lawyers, educators and survivors examined throughout this report demonstrate that change is possible.

Legal reforms can improve protection.

Civil society can expose institutional failures.

Education can expand opportunities.

Survivor-led initiatives can restore dignity and independence.

But progress must be measured by outcomes.

Can a missing child obtain an effective police investigation?

Can a girl establish her age and receive the protection required by law?

Can an adult woman exercise religious freedom without intimidation?

Can survivors access education, healthcare and financial independence?

And can those responsible for serious crimes be held accountable through fair legal proceedings?

These are the questions that determine whether human rights exist beyond official declarations.

A childhood cannot always be restored once it has been taken away. But societies can prevent further harm, protect those at risk and ensure that survivors are not denied their futures as well.

The right to safety, education, religious freedom and personal dignity should never depend on a girl's religion, family background or economic circumstances.

Her future must not belong to those who hold power over her. It must belong to her.

Sources & References

Stolen Childhoods: Forced Marriage, Religious Conversion and the Girls Fighting for Freedom

Beyond the Lines | Special Report | October 2026

This report draws on international human rights documentation, official legislation, government country reports, humanitarian research and publications by civil society organisations.

Sources are grouped by subject. Reported allegations of forced conversion, abduction or marriage are distinguished from judicial findings and independently established crimes.

1. International Human Rights and Child Protection

1. UNICEF — Child Marriage

United Nations Children's Fund. Overview of child marriage, its causes, consequences and prevention, including education, poverty, gender inequality and child protection.

https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-marriage

2. UNICEF Data — Child Marriage

United Nations Children's Fund. International child-marriage statistics, definitions, data sources and methodological explanations.

https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-protection/child-marriage/

3. UNFPA — Child Marriage: Frequently Asked Questions

United Nations Population Fund. Background information on child marriage, consent, reproductive health and the effects of early marriage.

https://aa.unfpa.org/resources/child-marriage-frequently-asked-questions

4. United Nations — Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)

International treaty establishing children's rights to protection, development, education and participation in decisions affecting them.

https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-child

5. United Nations — International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)

International treaty protecting freedom of thought, conscience and religion, equality before the law and the principle of free consent to marriage.

https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights

6. United Nations — Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)

International treaty addressing discrimination against women, including rights relating to marriage and family relationships.

https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-elimination-all-forms-discrimination-against-women

7. UNFPA, UNICEF and Equality Now — Towards Effective Laws (2026)

Towards Effective Laws: An Analytical Framework and Compendium of Good Practices on Laws and Policies to Address Child Marriage.

Published 8 October 2026. Comparative research on legal reform, implementation and the protection of adolescents.

https://www.unicef.org/ECMCompendium

2. Pakistan: Religious Minorities and Alleged Forced Conversions

8. National Commission for Human Rights and Legal Aid Society — Drivers of Forced Conversion through Marriage in Pakistan (2025)

Research examining reported forced conversion through marriage, religious minority vulnerability, gender inequality and the distinction between different forms of consent and coercion.

https://nchr.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/NCHR-LAS-FORCEDCONVERSION.pdf

9. UK Home Office — Christians and Christian Converts, Pakistan (2026)

Country Policy and Information Note: Christians and Christian Converts, Pakistan.

Version 6.0, July 2026; updated September 2026.

Comprehensive assessment of religious minorities, reported forced conversions, marriage disputes, legal protections and the response of public authorities.

https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/pakistan-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-christians-and-christian-converts-pakistan-july-2026-accessible

10. Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs — General Country of Origin Information Report on Pakistan (2024)

Official country report examining religious freedom, minority communities, social conditions and reported human rights violations.

https://www.government.nl/documents/reports/2024/07/05/general-country-of-origin-information-report-on-pakistan-july-2024

11. United Nations Human Rights Special Procedures — Alleged Forced Conversions and Marriages in Pakistan

Official communication concerning reported cases involving Christian and Hindu women and girls, including allegations of abduction, coercion and underage marriage.

https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TmSearch/SummaryPrint?id=27585

12. Human Rights Commission of Pakistan — Complaints Cell

Information on complaints involving human rights violations, forced marriage, forced conversion and other abuses.

https://hrcp-web.org/hrcpweb/complaints-cell/

13. National Commission for Human Rights Pakistan — Research Publications

Official collection of research concerning human rights, discrimination, vulnerable communities and legal protection.

https://nchr.gov.pk/knowledge-pro/

3. Pakistan: Constitutional and Marriage Law

14. Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Constitutional framework concerning religious freedom, equality before the law, minority protection and the relationship between legislation and Islamic principles.

National Assembly of Pakistan.

https://www.na.gov.pk/

15. Sindh Child Marriages Restraint Act 2013

Provincial legislation establishing eighteen as the minimum marriage age for both sexes and providing criminal penalties relating to child marriage.

Government of Sindh, official legislation repository.

https://www.sindhlaws.gov.pk/

16. Library of Congress — Pakistan: President Grants Assent to Islamabad Child Marriage Law (2025)

Legal analysis of the Islamabad Capital Territory Child Marriage Restraint Act 2025, including the minimum marriage age, registration requirements and criminal penalties.

Published 1 July 2025.

https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2025-07-01/pakistan-president-grants-assent-to-islamabad-child-marriage-law/

17. Pakistan Penal Code (1860), as amended

Relevant criminal provisions concerning kidnapping, abduction, forced marriage and related offences.

https://pakistancode.gov.pk/

18. Council of Islamic Ideology — Official Publications and Institutional Information

Information concerning the Council's constitutional advisory role and Islamic legal questions.

https://cii.gov.pk/

19. Dawn — Conviction Under Child Marriage Law Does Not Invalidate Nikah, Karachi Court Rules (2025)

Judicial reporting illustrating the distinction between criminal liability for child marriage and the separate legal question of marriage validity.

https://www.dawn.com/news/1963462/conviction-under-child-marriage-law-doesnt-invalidate-nikah-karachi-court-rules

20. Dawn — Islamabad High Court Allows 15-Year-Old Girl to Live with Husband (2025)

Reporting on a case involving disputed age documentation, statutory marriage restrictions and the legal treatment of a minor's expressed wishes.

https://www.dawn.com/news/1945956/islamabad-high-court-allows-15-year-old-girl-to-live-with-husband

4. Pakistan: Human Rights Organisations and Legal Assistance

21. Legal Aid Society — Gender and Child Security

Information on legal assistance, research and programmes concerning gender-based violence, child protection and forced conversion through marriage.

https://las.org.pk/genderandChildSecurity/

22. National Commission on the Rights of Child — Official Publications

Research and institutional information concerning children's rights, child marriage and protection systems.

https://ncrc.gov.pk/

23. Centre for Social Justice — Documentation Referenced in UK Government Country Reporting

The Centre for Social Justice's monitoring of reported cases involving religious minorities is discussed in the UK Home Office's July 2026 country report.

See Source 9, particularly the section on forced conversions and forced marriage.

24. Christian Solidarity Worldwide — Pakistan

Human rights reporting and advocacy concerning freedom of religion, religious minorities and alleged forced conversion.

https://www.csw.org.uk/

5. Afghanistan: Women's Rights and Child Marriage

25. UNICEF — Afghanistan

Country information and publications concerning children's rights, education, child protection and humanitarian conditions.

https://www.unicef.org/afghanistan/

26. UN Women — Afghanistan

Research and reporting on the restrictions affecting women and girls, including education, employment and participation in public life.

https://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/countries/afghanistan

27. United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan — Human Rights Reporting

Official reporting concerning the human rights situation under Taliban rule, including restrictions affecting women and girls.

https://unama.unmissions.org/

28. United Nations Human Rights — Afghanistan

Reports and statements concerning women's rights, forced marriage, education restrictions and the responsibilities of the de facto authorities.

https://www.ohchr.org/en/countries/afghanistan

6. Syria and Iraq: Conflict, Displacement and Child Marriage

29. UNICEF and UNFPA — Delivering Interventions to Address Child Marriage in Humanitarian Settings (2025)

Delivering Interventions to Address Child Marriage in Humanitarian Settings in Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Yemen: Barriers and Facilitators to Programming.

Published 22 October 2025.

Research examining prevention programmes, institutional challenges and the relationship between humanitarian crises and child marriage.

https://arabstates.unfpa.org/en/publications/delivering-interventions-address-child-marriage-humanitarian-settings-iraq-jordan

30. UNFPA — Iraq Humanitarian Emergency

Humanitarian information concerning displacement, gender-based violence, reproductive healthcare and harmful practices, including child marriage.

https://www.unfpa.org/data/emergencies/iraq-humanitarian-emergency

31. UNICEF — Syrian Arab Republic

Country information concerning children affected by conflict, displacement, disrupted education and humanitarian needs.

https://www.unicef.org/syria/

32. UNHCR — Syria Emergency

Information concerning Syrian displacement, refugee protection and humanitarian conditions.

https://www.unhcr.org/emergencies/syria-emergency

7. Iraq: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis

33. United Nations Independent International Commission of Inquiry — They Came to Destroy (2016)

They Came to Destroy: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis.

UN document A/HRC/32/CRP.2, published 15 June 2016.

Investigation documenting ISIS crimes against the Yazidi population, including killings, sexual slavery, forced conversion and acts constituting genocide.

https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/843515

34. UNITAD — Detailed Findings of International Crimes Committed Against the Yazidis (2024)

United Nations Investigative Team to Promote Accountability for Crimes Committed by Da'esh/ISIL.

Published 11 September 2024.

Detailed findings concerning war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide committed against the Yazidi community.

https://iraq.un.org/en/278383-unitad-publishes-detailed-findings-international-crimes-including-genocide-committed-isil-da

35. United Nations — Sexual Violence in Conflict: Iraq

Official documentation concerning conflict-related sexual violence, survivor protection and accountability.

https://www.un.org/sexualviolenceinconflict/countries/iraq/

36. United Nations Iraq — Rehabilitation and Mental Health Support for Genocide Survivors (2023)

Information concerning cooperation between Iraqi authorities and civil society organisations to provide mental health and psychosocial support to survivors.

https://iraq.un.org/en/225283-toward-comprehensive-rehabilitation-mental-health-service-referral-system-launched-genocide

8. Survivor Protection and Civil Society Organisations

37. Nadia's Initiative

Survivor-led organisation focusing on reconstruction, women's empowerment and assistance to communities affected by mass atrocities.

https://www.nadiasinitiative.org/

38. Free Yezidi Foundation

Organisation providing protection, education, livelihoods support and advocacy for Yazidi survivors and communities.

https://freeyezidi.org/

39. Yazda

Organisation associated with documentation, survivor assistance and advocacy concerning crimes committed against Yazidi communities.

https://www.yazda.org/

9. Health, Education and Long-Term Consequences

40. World Health Organization — Adolescent Pregnancy (2024)

WHO fact sheet addressing the health risks of adolescent pregnancy, including maternal complications and adverse neonatal outcomes.

Published 10 April 2024.

https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy

41. World Health Organization — Guideline on Preventing Early Pregnancy (2025)

WHO Guideline on Preventing Early Pregnancy and Poor Reproductive Outcomes among Adolescents in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

Published 22 April 2025.

Evidence-based recommendations concerning child marriage, coerced sex, adolescent reproductive health and prevention.

https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240104105

42. UNICEF — Child Marriage: Consequences and Prevention

Evidence concerning interrupted education, economic vulnerability, domestic violence, early pregnancy and social isolation.

See Source 1.

43. UNFPA — Child Marriage and Gender Inequality

Information concerning reproductive health, financial dependency, violence and the long-term consequences of child marriage.

https://www.unfpa.org/child-marriage

Source Methodology

This report prioritises primary legal documents, official institutional publications and research by recognised international organisations.

Human rights reports and civil society documentation are used to examine reported patterns and institutional responses.

Where figures originate from advocacy organisations, they are attributed to those organisations and should not be interpreted as comprehensive national statistics or confirmed criminal convictions.

Judicial reporting is used to explain relevant legal developments. Where available, original judgments and official statutory texts take precedence over media summaries.

The report distinguishes child marriage, forced marriage, alleged forced religious conversion and conflict-related sexual slavery. These categories may overlap in individual circumstances but are not legally or factually interchangeable.

Research cut-off: 28 October 2026.

Beyond the Lines — Independent Journalism. Beyond the Headlines.