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# Military Service and Israeli Society
- URL: https://beyondthelines.news/military-service-and-israeli-society/
- Published: 2026-10-13T11:52:09.000Z
- Updated: 2026-10-13T11:52:09.000Z
- Description: Military service shapes Israeli society, but not everyone serves equally. Explore conscription, identity, family life, military obligations and the future of the IDF.
- Author: Leonie Raffaelli
- Tags: Israel, Explainers, Military Service, IDF, Israeli Society, IDF & Israeli Security

# 

*Conscription, identity, equality and the human realities of serving in Israel's armed forces.*

## Introduction — A Society Shaped by Military Service

In Israel, military service is more than an institution of national defense. For generations, it has influenced the transition from adolescence to adulthood, shaped family life, created social networks and played a significant role in defining citizenship and national identity.

In many countries, military service is a profession pursued by a relatively small part of the population. In Israel, compulsory service has historically made the armed forces a central presence in civilian society. Young people may enter the military shortly after finishing secondary school, while many former soldiers remain connected to the armed forces through reserve duty.

Yet the familiar description of Israel as a nation of soldiers conceals a far more complicated reality.

Not every Israeli citizen is required to serve. Not everyone who is legally eligible is drafted, and military participation differs significantly between religious, ethnic and social communities. Jewish Israelis, Druze citizens, Arab citizens, ultra-Orthodox communities, immigrants and conscientious objectors encounter the military system in very different ways.

For some, service represents a meaningful responsibility toward the country's security. For others, it raises difficult questions about religious freedom, equality, identity and the relationship between the individual and the state.

These differences have become increasingly significant as Israel confronts prolonged security challenges, political disagreements and disputes over how military obligations should be shared.

### More Than a Military Institution

The Israel Defense Forces were established in 1948, during the war that accompanied Israel's creation. The country's early leaders viewed a broad system of military participation as essential to the survival of a new state facing immediate security threats.

Over time, the military became closely connected to Israeli public life.

Former officers entered politics, business, technology and public administration. Military experience could provide professional training, leadership opportunities and influential personal connections. Service became an important social reference point, although the advantages associated with particular military roles have never been distributed equally.

For many families, the moment a son or daughter receives a draft notice carries a mixture of pride and anxiety. Parents who once served themselves may recognize the traditions their children are entering, while also understanding the dangers they may face.

Military service can therefore create a sense of continuity between generations.

But it can also expose profound differences within Israeli society.

### The Question of Equal Responsibility

One of the most persistent debates concerns who should be expected to serve.

Most Jewish Israeli citizens are subject to conscription under the relevant legal framework, although exemptions and deferments apply. Druze men are generally subject to compulsory service, while most Arab citizens are not conscripted. Some citizens volunteer, and arrangements differ among religious and other communities.

The long-running debate over military exemptions for ultra-Orthodox Jewish men has become particularly contentious.

Supporters of broad conscription argue that national security obligations should be distributed more equally. Many religious opponents maintain that full-time Torah study is essential to Jewish communal life and that compulsory military service threatens their religious way of life.

These arguments concern far more than recruitment numbers.

They touch on fundamental questions about the meaning of citizenship, the role of religion in public life and the obligations individuals owe to the state.

They also reflect disagreements about whether military service should remain a defining measure of participation in Israeli society.

### The Human Experience Behind the Uniform

Statistics about recruitment and reserve forces cannot fully describe what military service means to the people involved.

A young recruit may experience military training as an opportunity to develop independence and confidence. Another may struggle with separation from family, demanding discipline or the psychological pressures of military life.

Reservists may be required to leave employment, studies and family responsibilities when called to duty.

Partners and children must adapt to prolonged absences, uncertainty and the possibility of injury or death.

Women serving in the military may encounter new opportunities alongside longstanding debates about combat roles, gender equality and institutional culture.

For soldiers who participate in operations involving Palestinian communities, military service also raises questions about the use of force, civilian protection, human rights and the legal responsibilities of an occupying power.

These experiences cannot be understood through a single national narrative.

### October 7 and a Changing Society

The Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023, and the wars that followed intensified many existing debates about military service.

Large numbers of reservists were mobilized, placing considerable pressure on families, employers and the wider economy. The attacks also challenged public confidence in the military's ability to protect civilians and brought renewed attention to preparedness, command responsibility and the distribution of military obligations.

For some Israelis, the events reinforced the importance of national service and collective defense.

For others, they raised urgent questions about leadership, the duration and objectives of military operations, the treatment of civilians and the responsibilities of political and military institutions.

The effects have extended beyond the armed forces themselves, influencing public debate about equality, democratic accountability and Israel's future.

### Understanding the Society Behind the Military

To understand military service in Israel is to examine the relationship between security, citizenship and everyday life.

It requires looking beyond uniforms, weapons and military operations to the experiences of recruits, reservists, parents, religious communities and citizens who do not serve.

It also requires acknowledging that Israeli society contains deeply different views about what military service represents and what obligations should accompany citizenship.

This article explores how Israel's system of military service developed, how it operates, whom it includes and excludes, and why its future remains one of the country's most consequential social and political questions.

Because understanding the Israeli military is not only about understanding how a country defends itself.

It is also about understanding the society that sustains it, questions it and lives with its consequences.

![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/25/d6/25d63f5d-099c-45e8-ad1b-346bc1c986ba/content/images/2026/10/Conscription_1948--1-.jpg)

Military conscription in Israel in 1948, the year the Israel Defense Forces were established. Compulsory service would become a defining institution in Israeli society. Photo: Government Press Office / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain.

## Chapter 1 — The Origins of Compulsory Military Service in Israel

### A Nation Born in War

When the State of Israel declared independence on May 14, 1948, its leaders faced an immediate and fundamental challenge: how to establish a national military capable of defending a newly created state.

The declaration came at the end of the British Mandate for Palestine and during an armed conflict that had already begun months earlier. Fighting between Jewish and Palestinian Arab forces intensified following the United Nations General Assembly's adoption of Resolution 181 in November 1947, which proposed partitioning British Mandatory Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, with a special international arrangement for Jerusalem.

Jewish political leaders accepted the partition plan, although not without internal disagreement. Arab leaders rejected it, arguing that it violated the political rights of the Arab majority in Palestine at the time.

After Israel declared independence, neighboring Arab states intervened militarily, transforming the conflict into a regional war.

For Israel's leadership, the immediate priority was survival.

The new state had limited resources, a relatively small population and no established national army. Its military forces were drawn largely from organizations that had operated before independence.

The most important was the Haganah, the principal Jewish defense organization during the final decades of British rule. Other armed organizations, including the Irgun and Lehi, also operated during the Mandate period.

These groups differed in their political outlook, leadership and military methods.

Creating a unified national military therefore required more than bringing fighters together. It required establishing a single chain of command under the authority of the new government.

This process would become one of the defining decisions of Israel's earliest years.

### From the Haganah to the Israel Defense Forces

On May 26, 1948, Prime Minister and Defense Minister David Ben-Gurion's provisional government established the Israel Defense Forces, commonly known as the IDF.

The creation of the IDF was intended to replace the fragmented military structures of the pre-state period with a national armed force accountable to the government.

Ben-Gurion believed that the state could not function effectively while separate armed organizations maintained independent military authority.

His approach reflected a broader principle: the legitimate use of military force should be controlled by state institutions rather than competing political movements.

The transition was not without conflict.

Tensions emerged over the integration of the Irgun, particularly during the Altalena affair in June 1948, when a confrontation over an arms shipment escalated into armed violence between the IDF and Irgun members.

The incident demonstrated how difficult it could be to establish centralized military authority during an ongoing war.

Nevertheless, the IDF gradually absorbed personnel from the existing organizations and developed a unified command structure.

The military's formation was closely connected to the political development of the new state.

From the beginning, Israel's leaders regarded national defense as a responsibility that could not be left to professional soldiers alone.

They believed that the wider population would need to participate.

### Why Israel Chose Compulsory Military Service

Israel's decision to establish compulsory military service was influenced by its security circumstances, demographic limitations and the military experience of the Jewish community before independence.

The country's relatively small population made it difficult to maintain a sufficiently large professional standing army.

At the same time, Israeli leaders expected that future conflicts could require the rapid mobilization of substantial numbers of soldiers.

A military system based on conscription offered a way to train a large portion of the eligible population while maintaining a smaller active force than would otherwise be necessary.

The model combined three elements: compulsory service, a professional military command and a reserve system capable of expanding the armed forces during emergencies.

Under this arrangement, eligible citizens would complete a period of active military service and, in many cases, remain available for reserve duty afterward.

The system was designed to allow the country to mobilize trained personnel relatively quickly without maintaining an enormous permanent army.

In 1949, Israel adopted the Defense Service Law, establishing the legal foundations of compulsory military service.

The legislation reflected the belief that national defense was not simply a government responsibility but an obligation shared by substantial parts of the population.

However, the idea of universal military service was never applied equally to every community.

Exemptions, deferments and different recruitment arrangements were present from the state's earliest years.

These distinctions would later become central to some of Israel's most contentious social and political debates.

### The Influence of Pre-State Military Traditions

Compulsory military service did not emerge in isolation.

Before 1948, Jewish communities in Mandatory Palestine had developed military and security organizations that combined defense responsibilities with broader social and political objectives.

The Haganah, established in 1920, became an important institution within the Jewish community.

Its members were involved in defending settlements, developing military training and organizing armed resistance during periods of conflict.

The Palmach, created in 1941 as an elite fighting force within the Haganah, developed a distinctive culture emphasizing physical endurance, collective responsibility and close relationships between commanders and fighters.

Some Palmach units combined military training with agricultural work in kibbutzim.

These experiences contributed to a tradition in which military service was associated not only with combat but also with communal participation, pioneering ideals and national development.

After independence, elements of this culture influenced the emerging IDF.

Military service came to be understood by many Jewish Israelis as a contribution to the collective security and development of the state.

At the same time, these traditions reflected the experiences of particular communities and political movements. They did not represent the perspectives of all people living in the territory.

For Palestinian Arabs, the 1948 war had profoundly different consequences.

Hundreds of thousands were displaced or fled their homes during the conflict, an event remembered by Palestinians as the Nakba, or catastrophe.

The same war that established Israel's national military therefore also became a foundational event in Palestinian collective memory.

Understanding these parallel historical experiences is essential to understanding the continuing conflict.

### The Early Development of the Reserve System

One of the most important features of Israel's military structure was the establishment of a reserve force.

The reserve system was intended to address a central strategic problem: how could a country with a limited population maintain sufficient military strength without keeping a large proportion of its workforce permanently under arms?

The answer was to train citizens during compulsory service and retain their military skills through periodic reserve duty.

In an emergency, former conscripts could be recalled to reinforce active military units.

This structure enabled the IDF to expand rapidly during periods of war.

It also created a direct relationship between military requirements and civilian life.

A reservist might spend most of the year working as a teacher, engineer, business owner or university student, while remaining subject to military obligations.

The system therefore connected national security to the labor market, education and family responsibilities.

During the 1950s and 1960s, the reserve force became an essential component of Israeli military planning.

Its importance was demonstrated during major conflicts, including the 1956 Suez Crisis and the Six-Day War of June 1967.

The system also revealed its limitations.

Large-scale mobilization could disrupt economic activity, place pressure on families and create significant costs for civilian institutions.

These tensions remain relevant today.

### Women and the Origins of Female Military Service

The inclusion of women in compulsory military service distinguished Israel from many other countries during the early decades of its existence.

Women had participated in Jewish defense organizations before independence, including the Haganah and Palmach.

During the 1948 war, women served in a variety of capacities, including communications, medical support, administration, logistics and, in some circumstances, combat-related activities.

After the IDF was established, women became part of the formal military service system.

However, their participation was subject to different rules and restrictions from those applying to men.

Women were generally assigned to a narrower range of positions, and many combat roles remained closed to them for decades.

Marriage, pregnancy, motherhood and religious circumstances also affected eligibility and exemptions.

Consequently, compulsory service for women did not mean that women and men experienced military life equally.

Over subsequent decades, changes in legislation, court decisions and military policy expanded opportunities for women in the IDF.

Nevertheless, debates concerning gender equality, operational requirements and access to senior military positions have continued.

The history of female conscription illustrates an important distinction between formal participation in an institution and equal access to its opportunities.

### Military Service and the Integration of Immigrants

During Israel's first years, the country experienced substantial immigration.

Jewish immigrants arrived from Europe, the Middle East, North Africa and other regions, bringing different languages, traditions and experiences.

Many had survived war, persecution or displacement.

The new state faced the challenge of integrating these populations into a rapidly changing society.

Military service became one of the institutions through which this process occurred.

Recruits from different backgrounds served together, learned Hebrew and became familiar with the institutions of the new state.

For some immigrants, the military provided education, professional skills and social connections that could be useful after completing service.

Military training also reinforced shared national symbols and collective narratives.

Supporters of this model viewed the IDF as an institution capable of bringing together people who might otherwise remain separated by language, geography or cultural background.

However, integration was not always equal.

Differences in education, socioeconomic status and access to influential military units could affect opportunities during and after service.

The military could promote social mobility, but it could also reproduce inequalities already present in society.

The experience of immigrants therefore reveals both the integrating ambitions and the social limitations of the conscription system.

### The Communities Outside the Main Conscription Framework

Although Israel developed a broad system of compulsory military service, the obligation was never distributed uniformly.

Most Arab citizens of Israel have not been subject to compulsory military service, although some volunteer.

Druze men became subject to conscription under arrangements introduced in the 1950s, while other communities have followed different recruitment practices.

The circumstances of Bedouin citizens have also varied, with some volunteering for military service.

Ultra-Orthodox Jewish men studying in religious institutions received deferments under arrangements that began during the state's early years.

What initially involved a relatively small number of students later developed into a major national controversy as the ultra-Orthodox population and the number of deferred students increased.

These different arrangements reflected political negotiations, security considerations, religious concerns and the complex relationship between the state and its diverse communities.

They also raised a question that would become increasingly difficult to avoid:

If military service is understood as a central civic obligation, how should the state justify different obligations for different groups of citizens?

The answer has never been universally accepted.

For some, differentiated service arrangements recognize legitimate differences in religion, identity and historical circumstances.

For others, they create inequalities in the distribution of risk, responsibility and public recognition.

The issue remains closely connected to broader debates about the character of the Israeli state.

### The Military as a Social Institution

As compulsory military service became established, the IDF developed a role extending far beyond national defense.

For many Jewish Israelis, military service became an expected stage of early adulthood.

The transition from school to military service shaped educational decisions, career planning and family expectations.

Military experiences influenced personal relationships and professional networks.

Former soldiers sometimes maintained close friendships with people they had served alongside, while certain units developed reputations that could influence later employment opportunities.

The military also became a pathway into political leadership.

Numerous Israeli political figures held senior military positions before entering public office.

This relationship between military experience and civilian leadership reflected the importance of security in Israeli political life.

Yet it also raised questions about the influence of military institutions on public policy and the distinction between military expertise and democratic decision-making.

Military service could provide leadership experience, but it was not a guarantee of political judgment or accountability.

Over time, the military became both a source of social cohesion and a subject of public disagreement.

### A System Created for Survival, Debated Across Generations

Israel's compulsory military service system emerged from the extraordinary circumstances of 1948.

The country's leaders faced immediate security threats, limited manpower and the challenge of transforming separate armed organizations into a unified national military.

Conscription and reserve duty offered a practical response to these conditions.

But the system developed into something larger than a military recruitment model.

It became intertwined with citizenship, national identity, social opportunity and political influence.

Its unequal application across different communities also created tensions that would grow over time.

Today, debates about military service cannot be separated from questions about religion, equality, democracy, economic responsibility and the consequences of prolonged conflict.

The system established during Israel's earliest years continues to influence the lives of millions of people.

To understand its present controversies, it is necessary to recognize both the historical circumstances that produced it and the ways Israeli society has changed since 1948.

The next chapter examines one of the most fundamental questions surrounding military service in Israel:

**Who is required to serve, who is exempt, and why?**

![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/25/d6/25d63f5d-099c-45e8-ad1b-346bc1c986ba/content/images/2026/10/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Soldiers_Graduate_Combat_Training-_Pose_for_Group_Picture.jpg)

Young Israeli soldiers during military service. Conscription plays a central role in Israeli society, although military obligations differ across religious and population groups.

## Chapter 2 — Who Serves and Who Does Not?

### The Reality Behind Universal Conscription

Israel is frequently described as a country where almost everyone serves in the military.

The reality is considerably more complex.

Although compulsory military service has been a central feature of Israeli national security since the state's establishment, the obligation has never applied equally to every citizen.

Eligibility depends on a combination of legal status, age, sex, religious and community background, medical circumstances and administrative decisions.

Even among citizens who are legally subject to conscription, not everyone ultimately enters military service.

Some receive exemptions. Others are deferred, found medically unfit or released under specific legal provisions. Some individuals volunteer despite not being required to serve.

These distinctions are essential to understanding both the structure of the Israel Defense Forces and the broader relationship between military service and Israeli citizenship.

They also explain why the question of who serves has become one of the country's most politically sensitive debates.

### The Legal Foundations of Military Service

Israel's system of compulsory military service is governed principally by the Defense Service Law, which has been amended repeatedly since the state's early years.

Under the law, Israeli citizens and certain permanent residents may be subject to military service, depending on their circumstances.

The system generally requires eligible Jewish men and women to report for military assessment and, if selected, complete a period of compulsory service.

However, the legal framework contains exemptions, deferments and special arrangements.

The length of compulsory service has also changed over time.

For many years, the standard service period was approximately three years for men and two years for women, although the precise requirements have varied according to legislation, recruitment date and military role.

Subsequent reforms shortened certain service periods, while security developments prompted renewed proposals to extend service obligations.

Some specialized positions require additional commitments.

Consequently, there is no single service duration that accurately describes every Israeli recruit.

It is also important to distinguish between three separate concepts: legal liability for service, actual recruitment and participation in reserve duty.

A person may fall within the legal framework without ultimately serving.

Likewise, completing compulsory service does not automatically mean that every former soldier will be called for regular reserve duty.

### Jewish Israeli Men: The Traditional Core of Conscription

Jewish Israeli men have historically formed a major component of the compulsory military service system.

For many, recruitment takes place after secondary school, generally around the age of eighteen.

Before entering the military, prospective recruits undergo administrative and medical assessments designed to determine their eligibility and suitability for different roles.

Assignments may depend on physical fitness, educational qualifications, personal preferences, security screening and the operational requirements of the armed forces.

Some recruits enter combat units, including infantry, armored formations, artillery and other operational branches.

Others serve in intelligence, communications, logistics, medicine, administration, technology or technical support.

Military service is therefore not synonymous with combat service.

A substantial part of the IDF depends on personnel whose responsibilities involve maintaining the systems that allow military operations to function.

Nevertheless, compulsory service has traditionally carried significant social expectations for Jewish Israeli men.

In some families and communities, completing military service is viewed as an important contribution to national security and a recognized stage of adulthood.

Certain military roles, particularly elite combat and intelligence positions, may also provide social prestige and professional opportunities.

These expectations can create pressure on individuals who are unable or unwilling to serve.

They also contribute to a broader debate about whether military experience should influence access to employment, public recognition or social status.

### Jewish Israeli Women: Compulsory Service with Different Rules

Israel is unusual in maintaining a broad system of compulsory military service that includes women.

Jewish Israeli women are generally subject to conscription, although their service obligations and available exemptions differ from those applying to men.

Women may serve in a wide range of military positions, including intelligence, technology, medicine, communications, training, administration and an expanding number of operational and combat roles.

Over the decades, legislative changes, legal challenges and military reforms have opened additional positions to female personnel.

However, compulsory service does not mean that women and men are treated identically under every aspect of the system.

Different service periods, exemption rules and occupational requirements have historically shaped women's military participation.

Women may qualify for exemptions in circumstances including marriage, pregnancy, motherhood and certain religious grounds.

Some religious Jewish women choose national or community service as an alternative form of contribution.

The existence of different obligations has produced continuing debate.

Supporters of the current framework often emphasize operational requirements and the need to accommodate different personal circumstances.

Critics argue that distinctions between male and female service can reinforce inequality and limit women's access to influential military roles.

The issue is not simply whether women are permitted to serve.

It concerns the conditions under which they serve, the opportunities available to them and the extent to which military institutions provide equal treatment.

### Arab Citizens of Israel: Citizenship Without General Conscription

Most Arab citizens of Israel are not routinely drafted into compulsory military service.

This includes most Muslim and Christian Arab citizens, although individual circumstances and community arrangements differ.

The policy reflects historical and political considerations connected to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Many Arab citizens identify as Palestinian, and military service in the IDF can create profound questions about national identity, political allegiance and participation in a military involved in operations affecting Palestinians.

For some, serving in the Israeli military would mean participating in an institution whose actions directly affect their wider national community.

For others, volunteering may represent a personal decision motivated by professional opportunities, a desire to contribute to the state or other individual circumstances.

The absence of general conscription does not mean that Arab citizens are legally prohibited from serving.

Voluntary enlistment is possible, subject to eligibility and military requirements.

Some Arab citizens have served in different branches of the armed forces, although participation varies considerably between communities.

This distinction is important.

Arab citizens of Israel are not a single political or cultural group with uniform attitudes toward military service.

Their perspectives differ according to identity, religion, family history, political beliefs and personal experience.

The relationship between Arab citizenship and military service also raises questions about equality.

Military participation can be connected to certain benefits, educational opportunities and employment pathways.

Critics argue that policies favoring former soldiers may disadvantage citizens who are not generally drafted.

Supporters maintain that benefits associated with military service recognize the responsibilities and risks undertaken by those who serve.

These competing arguments reveal how military policy can influence civilian equality.

### The Druze Community: A Distinct Conscription Arrangement

Druze citizens occupy a distinctive position within Israel's military service system.

Since 1956, Druze men have generally been subject to compulsory military service under arrangements established between the state and Druze leadership.

Druze women are not routinely conscripted.

The Druze are a religious minority with communities in Israel, Lebanon, Syria and elsewhere in the region.

In Israel, many Druze citizens have developed a strong tradition of participation in the IDF, including combat and leadership positions.

Military service has become an important part of the public identity of some Druze communities.

However, attitudes toward conscription are not uniform.

Some Druze citizens strongly identify with the Israeli state and regard military service as a shared national responsibility.

Others criticize aspects of government policy or question whether military participation has produced equal treatment in civilian life.

Issues involving housing, land use, public funding and the constitutional status of minorities have contributed to these debates.

The 2018 Nation-State Basic Law, which defines Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people, generated particular criticism among some Druze citizens who argued that their community's military contributions were not adequately reflected in the state's constitutional framework.

The Druze experience demonstrates that military service and national belonging do not always produce identical political expectations.

It also illustrates the difference between serving a state and agreeing with all of its policies.

### Bedouin Citizens and Voluntary Military Service

The relationship between Israel's Bedouin communities and the military differs from the arrangements applying to Druze citizens.

Bedouin citizens, many of whom live in the Negev region, are generally not subject to compulsory military service.

However, some volunteer.

Historically, Bedouin soldiers have served in roles including reconnaissance, tracking and other operational functions.

Their knowledge of local geography and terrain has sometimes been particularly valued.

Nevertheless, participation in the military does not represent the entire Bedouin community.

Attitudes toward enlistment vary considerably.

Some individuals view military service as a pathway toward employment, training or greater integration into Israeli institutions.

Others oppose participation because of political identity, community concerns or disagreements with state policies.

Bedouin communities also face longstanding disputes involving land ownership, planning, housing recognition and access to public services.

These issues can shape perceptions of the relationship between military service and citizenship.

For some families, the question is whether service provides meaningful opportunities.

For others, the central concern is whether citizens should be expected to contribute militarily while continuing to experience social and economic disadvantages.

### Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Communities and Military Exemptions

Perhaps the most politically contentious issue in Israel's conscription system concerns ultra-Orthodox Jewish men, often referred to as Haredim.

The origins of the dispute date to Israel's earliest years.

Under arrangements associated with Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, a limited number of religious students were permitted to defer military service while pursuing full-time Torah study.

The original arrangement involved a relatively small population.

Over subsequent decades, however, the ultra-Orthodox community expanded, and the number of men receiving deferments increased substantially.

The issue gradually became a major source of political and legal disagreement.

Many ultra-Orthodox leaders maintain that religious study is essential to Jewish communal life and the preservation of religious traditions.

Some also argue that the military environment may conflict with the religious practices and social structures of their communities.

Other Israelis question why men from some communities are expected to undertake military service while many ultra-Orthodox men have historically received deferments.

The dispute intensified as Israel's security demands increased.

In June 2024, Israel's Supreme Court ruled that, without a valid legal basis for the broad exemption arrangements, the state could not continue treating eligible ultra-Orthodox yeshiva students as exempt from conscription.

The ruling also addressed public funding for religious institutions connected to the disputed arrangements.

The decision was a significant legal development, but it did not immediately resolve the practical challenges of recruitment, enforcement and political agreement.

Implementing conscription involves administrative capacity, military readiness, community opposition and decisions about how religious accommodations should operate.

The issue remains a central test of the relationship between religion, law and equality in Israel.

A later chapter will examine this debate in greater detail.

### Religious Women and Alternative National Service

For some Israeli women, particularly those from religious Jewish communities, military service raises questions about religious practice and personal identity.

Israeli law provides mechanisms through which eligible women may receive exemptions on religious grounds.

Some women who do not enter the IDF instead participate in national or community service, commonly known as Sherut Leumi.

These programs may involve work in hospitals, schools, social services, emergency organizations and other public institutions.

National service is not identical to military service.

It operates under different administrative arrangements, and the obligations, duration and benefits may differ according to the applicable program.

Nevertheless, it provides an alternative way for some individuals to contribute to society without serving in the armed forces.

The system has also developed opportunities for participants from different communities, including some Arab citizens.

For supporters, alternative national service recognizes that civic contribution can take forms other than military participation.

Critics question whether the various service frameworks receive equal recognition and whether their different obligations create additional inequalities.

The broader issue concerns how a state defines public service and whether military participation should remain the dominant measure of civic responsibility.

### Medical Exemptions and Personal Circumstances

Not every person who is legally eligible for military service is physically or psychologically suited to serve.

The IDF uses medical and administrative assessments to determine whether recruits can perform military duties and which positions may be appropriate.

Some individuals receive exemptions because of physical disabilities, medical conditions or mental health considerations.

Others may be assigned to positions compatible with their circumstances.

Eligibility decisions can affect young people's educational plans, employment opportunities and sense of social belonging.

In a society where military service carries considerable cultural importance, exemption can sometimes be experienced as a source of stigma.

However, an exemption does not necessarily reflect a lack of willingness to contribute to society.

Some individuals who are exempt from compulsory service seek opportunities to volunteer in the military or participate in civilian service programs.

The distinction between eligibility and personal commitment is therefore important.

### Conscientious Objection and Refusal to Serve

Another group consists of individuals who object to military service on moral, political or religious grounds.

Some reject participation in armed conflict in general.

Others oppose particular military policies or operations.

Israel has legal and administrative procedures relating to claims of conscientious objection, but recognition is limited and subject to specific requirements.

Individuals whose objections are not accepted may face disciplinary or criminal consequences if they refuse lawful military orders or fail to comply with service obligations.

The distinction between general pacifism and selective objection to particular military activities has been especially significant in Israeli legal practice.

Some Israelis who oppose military operations in the occupied Palestinian territories have refused particular assignments or military service altogether.

Others have continued to serve while publicly criticizing government or military policy.

These positions are not identical.

Refusing all military service, refusing a particular deployment and expressing political opposition while remaining in uniform involve different legal and ethical questions.

The debate reflects a broader tension between national security obligations and individual freedom of conscience.

It also raises fundamental questions about the limits of state authority over citizens.

### Reserve Duty: Obligations Beyond Compulsory Service

For many Israelis, military obligations do not end when compulsory service is completed.

The reserve system allows the IDF to recall trained personnel for exercises, operational duties or emergency mobilization.

Not every former conscript remains equally active in the reserves.

Reserve obligations depend on factors including military role, age, legal status, personal circumstances and operational requirements.

Certain units rely heavily on experienced reservists whose civilian professions may have little connection to their military responsibilities.

A person may spend most of the year working in an office, running a business or caring for children, only to be called back into military service during a security crisis.

This creates a direct connection between national defense and civilian economic life.

It also means that military decisions can have consequences far beyond the armed forces.

Employers may lose essential staff.

Families may face prolonged separations.

Students may interrupt their education.

Self-employed reservists may experience significant financial uncertainty.

The extensive mobilization following October 7, 2023, demonstrated the continuing importance of the reserve system and the pressures it can place on society.

### Military Service and the Question of Equal Citizenship

The differences between Israel's communities reveal a central contradiction within the country's conscription system.

Military service is often presented as a shared national responsibility, yet the obligation is distributed unevenly.

For some citizens, military participation is mandatory and socially expected.

For others, it is voluntary, deferred or generally not required.

These differences reflect historical circumstances, political agreements, religious concerns and the complicated relationship between citizenship and national identity.

But they also create questions that cannot be answered through military policy alone.

Should all citizens be expected to contribute through military or civilian service?

Should exemptions depend on religious affiliation?

Should former soldiers receive benefits that are unavailable to citizens who were never required to serve?

How should a democratic society balance individual conscience with collective security?

And can military service serve as a unifying national institution when significant sections of the population experience it differently?

There are no universally accepted answers within Israeli society.

The debates are especially difficult because they concern both individual rights and the practical requirements of national defense.

### Beyond the Numbers

Understanding who serves in Israel requires more than examining recruitment statistics.

It requires recognizing that military service is experienced through different histories, identities and expectations.

For some Jewish Israelis, conscription is an ordinary and meaningful part of growing up.

For some Druze families, it represents a longstanding tradition of service.

For many Arab citizens, nonparticipation reflects a distinct relationship with the state and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

For ultra-Orthodox communities, military obligations can challenge religious institutions and established ways of life.

For conscientious objectors, the issue concerns the boundaries of personal morality and state authority.

For women, the system raises continuing questions about equality, opportunity and exemptions.

And for reservists, military obligations can extend far into civilian adulthood.

These experiences demonstrate why Israel's conscription system cannot be understood as a simple division between those who serve and those who do not.

It is a reflection of the country's history, demographic diversity, political disagreements and competing ideas about citizenship.

The next chapter turns to a particularly important dimension of this debate: the experiences of women in the Israeli military and the continuing struggle over opportunity, equality and recognition.

## Chapter 3 — Women in Uniform: Service, Opportunity and Inequality

### A Military Where Women Have Always Been Present

When the State of Israel established its armed forces in 1948, women were already part of the country's military history.

Unlike many armed forces of the period, the newly created Israel Defense Forces included women within its compulsory service system from the beginning.

Their participation reflected both the military needs of a country at war and the traditions of Jewish defense organizations that had operated before independence.

Women had served in the Haganah, the principal Jewish defense organization during the British Mandate, and in the Palmach, its elite fighting force.

Some carried weapons, participated in defensive operations, transported supplies, maintained communications and provided medical assistance.

Others worked in intelligence, administration and logistical support.

During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, women contributed to the military effort in numerous capacities, although their experiences and assignments varied considerably.

Their involvement helped establish an enduring feature of Israeli military life: women would not be entirely separated from national defense.

Yet participation did not automatically produce equality.

From the beginning, the military distinguished between the responsibilities and opportunities available to men and women.

Those distinctions would shape the experiences of generations of female soldiers.

### The Women's Corps and the Early Years of the IDF

Following independence, the IDF established the Women's Corps, known in Hebrew as *Chen*.

The corps was responsible for aspects of women's recruitment, training, administration and military welfare.

During the early decades of the state, women served in a variety of positions, including communications, clerical work, instruction, medicine and technical support.

Their presence was essential to the functioning of the military.

However, most combat roles remained closed to women.

Military policy was influenced by several considerations, including prevailing social expectations, concerns about physical requirements, the treatment of women as prisoners of war and assumptions about the appropriate roles of men and women.

Women were frequently directed toward occupations considered suitable for female personnel, even when individual recruits possessed the qualifications for other positions.

This arrangement created a contradiction.

Women were expected to contribute to national defense, yet their opportunities to participate in some of the military's most influential roles were restricted.

The distinction had consequences beyond military service.

In Israeli society, combat experience and service in prestigious units could provide professional connections, social recognition and pathways into leadership.

Exclusion from these positions therefore affected women's opportunities after leaving the military.

### Compulsory Service Does Not Mean Equal Service

Israel's system of female conscription is often presented internationally as evidence of gender equality in the armed forces.

The reality requires a more careful examination.

Jewish Israeli women are generally subject to compulsory military service, but the rules governing their service have historically differed from those applying to men.

These differences include service duration, eligibility for exemptions, access to certain positions and reserve obligations.

Women may qualify for exemptions on grounds including marriage, pregnancy, motherhood and specified religious circumstances.

Men and women have also faced different expectations regarding the length and nature of their service.

Although many military positions have gradually opened to women, some roles remain subject to eligibility restrictions or specific selection criteria.

The distinction between formal inclusion and equal opportunity is therefore important.

A military may require women to serve without providing identical access to training, promotion or operational assignments.

At the same time, identical rules do not necessarily account for every medical, physiological or personal circumstance.

The challenge for military institutions is to establish requirements that are relevant to operational duties while avoiding unnecessary discrimination.

In Israel, this balance has been the subject of legal challenges, public debate and continuing institutional reform.

### The Alice Miller Case: A Turning Point

One of the most significant developments in the history of women in the IDF occurred during the 1990s.

Alice Miller, an Israeli woman who sought admission to the Israeli Air Force's pilot training program, challenged the military's exclusion of women from the course.

At the time, women were not permitted to enter the program.

Miller argued that the policy violated principles of equality.

In 1995, Israel's Supreme Court ruled in her favor, establishing an important precedent concerning women's access to military opportunities.

The decision did not mean that every military position would immediately become available to women.

However, it challenged the assumption that entire categories of service could be closed to female candidates solely because of their sex.

The ruling became an important milestone in the broader movement toward integrating women into additional military occupations.

Subsequent reforms expanded women's access to aviation, operational command and other previously restricted positions.

In 2000, an amendment to the Defense Service Law strengthened the legal principle that women should have equal opportunities to serve in military roles, subject to limitations justified by the nature and requirements of particular positions.

These developments represented significant changes in military policy.

Nevertheless, legal recognition of equality did not eliminate every practical barrier.

Recruitment standards, institutional culture, career progression and access to senior positions remained subjects of debate.

### Women in Combat: Expanding the Boundaries

Over the following decades, the IDF expanded the range of operational positions available to women.

Female soldiers began serving in mixed-gender combat formations, border defense units, air defense, artillery-related positions and other operational roles.

One of the best-known examples is the Caracal Battalion, established as a mixed-gender combat unit in the early 2000s.

Caracal became associated with border security missions and demonstrated that women could perform a range of demanding operational duties.

Other mixed-gender border defense units were subsequently established.

Women also became increasingly visible in the Israeli Air Force, including as pilots and aircrew members.

The expansion of combat opportunities challenged longstanding assumptions about women's physical capabilities and their place within military institutions.

Supporters argued that opening positions to qualified women would increase the military's available personnel, recognize individual ability and improve equality.

Critics raised concerns about physical standards, injury risks, operational effectiveness and the implications of integrating women into particular combat environments.

Some objections were also based on religious considerations concerning mixed-gender service.

These debates were not unique to Israel.

Armed forces around the world have confronted similar questions as they expanded women's access to combat occupations.

The central issue is whether eligibility should be determined by an individual's ability to meet the requirements of a position rather than by broad assumptions about sex.

In practice, the IDF has continued to evaluate different roles separately, and not all combat positions have been opened on identical terms.

### The Women Who Guarded the Gaza Border

One of the most consequential roles performed by female soldiers in the IDF has been that of military surveillance observer.

These soldiers, commonly known in Hebrew as *tatzpitaniyot*, monitor border areas through surveillance systems and report suspicious activity to military commanders.

Their work requires sustained concentration, familiarity with local terrain and the ability to identify changes in movement or behavior.

Although they are not generally described as frontline combat soldiers, their responsibilities can be directly connected to the detection of security threats.

Before October 7, 2023, female surveillance soldiers stationed near Gaza played an important role in monitoring activity along the border.

Some reported unusual training exercises, movements and patterns that they believed deserved closer attention.

Subsequent reporting and military investigations raised serious questions about how these observations were assessed and communicated within the intelligence and command systems.

The issue became one of the most disturbing aspects of the security failures surrounding October 7.

Were warnings from lower-ranking personnel given sufficient consideration?

Did established assumptions about Hamas influence how commanders interpreted reports from the border?

And did military hierarchy or institutional attitudes affect the attention given to the observations of young female soldiers?

These questions cannot all be reduced to gender discrimination.

Intelligence failures may involve multiple factors, including organizational assumptions, fragmented information, command structures and failures to connect separate pieces of evidence.

Nevertheless, the experiences of the surveillance soldiers became central to a broader debate about whether personnel closest to an emerging threat were being heard.

### October 7: The Attack on Nahal Oz

The Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023, brought devastating consequences for personnel stationed near the Gaza border.

At the Nahal Oz military base, female surveillance soldiers were among those killed or abducted during the assault.

The base was attacked as part of the broader offensive against Israeli military positions and civilian communities.

The deaths and abductions of young servicewomen became a particularly painful part of the national trauma.

For their families, the questions extended beyond the events of the attack itself.

Some sought answers about the protection provided to their daughters, the decisions made by commanders and whether earlier warnings had been adequately investigated.

The events also drew attention to the vulnerability of military personnel serving at exposed border installations.

Although surveillance systems were intended to provide early warning, the soldiers operating them were themselves placed in danger when the defensive system was breached.

The tragedy demonstrated that military support and intelligence positions can carry significant operational risks, even when they are not formally classified as combat roles.

It also challenged public assumptions about the relationship between military rank, responsibility and the value of information.

A young soldier monitoring a screen may possess observations that are essential to national security.

Whether those observations influence decisions depends on the institutions responsible for receiving and evaluating them.

### Female Soldiers During the October 7 Fighting

Women also participated in the military response to the October 7 attacks.

Female combat soldiers, commanders, medical personnel and other service members were involved in defensive operations, emergency assistance and the response to attacks near Gaza.

Members of mixed-gender border defense units, including the Caracal Battalion, participated in fighting against infiltrating militants.

Accounts of female soldiers engaging attackers, protecting civilians and assisting wounded personnel received considerable public attention.

These experiences challenged stereotypes about women's participation in military operations.

They also demonstrated the difference between abstract debates about combat integration and the realities of an emergency in which soldiers must respond to immediate threats.

However, the actions of individual women should not be used to suggest that all questions about military equality have been resolved.

Heroism during a crisis does not automatically eliminate institutional barriers.

Nor should the contribution of women be recognized only when they perform roles traditionally associated with male soldiers.

The work of intelligence analysts, surveillance personnel, medical staff and logistics teams remains essential to military operations.

A comprehensive understanding of women's military service must acknowledge these contributions alongside combat performance.

### Leadership and the Military Glass Ceiling

Despite expanded opportunities, women have historically remained underrepresented in the highest levels of military command.

This pattern reflects several interconnected factors.

Senior operational appointments often require experience in particular combat and command positions.

Where women have had limited access to these roles, their opportunities to advance into the highest ranks have also been restricted.

Career structures, service duration, reserve obligations and family responsibilities can further influence professional progression.

Institutional expectations may also affect recruitment, evaluation and promotion.

The result is that formal eligibility for a position does not necessarily produce equal representation.

The IDF has appointed women to increasingly senior positions in intelligence, legal affairs, personnel management and other branches.

These appointments represent important developments.

Yet debates continue about access to the military's most influential operational leadership pathways.

The question is not whether every rank should contain an identical number of men and women regardless of qualifications.

It is whether qualified personnel have fair access to the training, experience and advancement opportunities required for leadership.

For women in the military, that distinction remains significant.

### Religion, Military Service and Gender Integration

Israel's military operates within a society containing diverse religious and cultural traditions.

This diversity creates particular challenges when integrating men and women into the same military environments.

Some religious soldiers observe rules concerning physical contact, modesty and interactions between men and women.

Military authorities have developed policies intended to accommodate religious practice while maintaining operational requirements and service opportunities.

These arrangements have sometimes generated controversy.

Women's rights advocates have expressed concern that certain accommodations could restrict female soldiers' participation or limit their visibility in military activities.

Religious organizations and soldiers have argued that military service should not require individuals to abandon deeply held religious obligations.

The challenge is particularly sensitive because the IDF is both a military organization and an institution through which people from different communities encounter one another.

The issue is not simply a conflict between religious and secular Israelis.

There are religious women who serve in the military, secular soldiers who support accommodations and individuals whose views do not fit neatly into either category.

A balanced approach requires recognizing both freedom of religion and the principle that women should not be excluded from opportunities solely to satisfy the preferences of others.

The practical application of these principles remains contested.

### Sexual Harassment, Safety and Institutional Responsibility

Gender equality in the armed forces also concerns the safety and dignity of service members.

Like other large military institutions, the IDF has faced allegations and documented cases of sexual harassment, sexual misconduct and abuse of authority.

The hierarchical nature of military organizations can create particular challenges for individuals seeking to report inappropriate behavior.

A young recruit may depend on commanders for assignments, evaluations and professional opportunities.

This imbalance of authority can make reporting misconduct difficult, especially when allegations involve a superior officer.

The military has developed disciplinary procedures, reporting channels and prevention policies intended to address sexual misconduct.

Nevertheless, the effectiveness of such measures depends on their implementation.

A reporting mechanism is meaningful only if personnel trust that complaints will be handled fairly and without retaliation.

Institutional accountability also requires distinguishing between allegations, substantiated findings and criminal convictions.

The existence of misconduct does not justify generalizing about every member of the armed forces.

Equally, the contributions of female soldiers should not be used to minimize legitimate concerns about harassment or unequal treatment.

Military effectiveness and personnel welfare are not competing priorities.

An institution that expects individuals to undertake demanding and potentially dangerous responsibilities also has an obligation to provide a safe and professional working environment.

### The Personal Cost of Military Service

Behind discussions about equality and operational capability are the experiences of individual women.

For some, military service provides opportunities to develop confidence, technical expertise, independence and leadership skills.

Others experience the challenges of strict discipline, separation from family and uncertainty about future assignments.

Women in demanding operational positions may face prolonged periods away from home, physical exhaustion and psychological stress.

Those who serve in areas exposed to attacks may confront the possibility of injury, captivity or death.

Military service can also influence educational plans, relationships and decisions about starting a family.

These experiences differ according to role, length of service and personal circumstances.

For women who continue into professional military careers, questions about promotion and work-life balance may become increasingly important.

For those who leave after compulsory service, military experience can influence future employment and social relationships.

Yet the value of that experience may depend on which unit they served in and the skills they were able to acquire.

This reinforces a central point: women do not experience the Israeli military as a single, uniform institution.

Their opportunities and challenges vary widely.

### Beyond Symbolism: What Equality Requires

Images of women carrying weapons or operating military equipment are frequently used to represent Israel's approach to gender equality.

Such images can illustrate real changes in women's military participation.

But they do not provide a complete measure of equality.

A more meaningful assessment requires examining access to positions, recruitment standards, professional training, promotion opportunities, institutional culture and the protection of personnel.

It also requires acknowledging that military participation does not have the same meaning for all Israeli women.

Jewish women, Druze women, Arab women, religious women and women from other communities face different legal obligations and social expectations.

Some regard military service as an important responsibility.

Others choose civilian service or do not participate in either system.

Still others question the role of the military itself.

Gender equality therefore cannot be measured solely by the number of women in uniform.

It must also be considered within the broader context of citizenship, personal freedom and access to opportunity.

### A Changing Institution, an Unfinished Debate

The history of women in the IDF is a story of participation, exclusion, reform and continuing disagreement.

Women have contributed to Israel's armed forces since the country's establishment.

Over time, legal decisions and policy changes have opened positions that were previously unavailable to them.

Female soldiers now serve in a wide range of military occupations, including operational roles that were once considered exclusively male.

The events of October 7 demonstrated both the importance of their contributions and the potentially devastating consequences of institutional failures.

The experiences of the surveillance soldiers near Gaza raised questions about military hierarchy, the treatment of intelligence warnings and the protection of personnel.

The actions of women who fought during the attacks challenged assumptions about their operational capabilities.

Yet neither tragedy nor heroism should replace a careful examination of the institution itself.

Questions about equality, safety, leadership and opportunity remain.

The future of women's military service in Israel will depend not only on whether additional positions are opened, but also on whether the armed forces provide fair opportunities, effective accountability and appropriate protection for everyone serving.

Understanding these challenges is essential to understanding the relationship between military service and Israeli society.

Because the question is not simply whether women can serve.

It is whether the institution in which they serve recognizes their responsibilities, listens to their professional judgments and provides them with the same respect and opportunities expected by their male counterparts.

## Chapter 4 — From Civilian to Soldier: Training and Military Life

### When Adolescence Meets Military Responsibility

For many young Israelis, the transition from secondary school to military service marks one of the most significant changes in their early adult lives.

At an age when their peers in many other countries are preparing for university, entering employment or travelling abroad, eligible Israeli citizens may be preparing to enter the Israel Defense Forces.

The transition can be abrupt.

A young person who recently attended classes, studied for examinations and spent time with friends may soon be living on a military base, following a strict schedule and learning to operate within a hierarchical institution.

For some, this moment represents a source of pride and anticipation.

For others, it brings uncertainty, anxiety or concern about the responsibilities ahead.

The experience is shaped by family background, personal beliefs, health, social circumstances and the type of military assignment a recruit receives.

Military service is not experienced in the same way by everyone.

A recruit entering an infantry unit will encounter a different environment from someone assigned to military intelligence, cybersecurity, medical services or administration.

Nevertheless, the transition from civilian life to military responsibility remains a defining experience for many Israelis.

It is also one of the ways in which the country's security system becomes deeply connected to everyday society.

### Before Enlistment: The Recruitment Process

The process of entering the IDF generally begins before a young person reaches the age of compulsory service.

Eligible candidates are called for assessments intended to determine their suitability for military duties.

The initial recruitment process, commonly associated with the *Tzav Rishon*, or first call-up notice, involves administrative procedures and evaluations that may include medical examinations, personal interviews and assessments of relevant abilities.

The military uses information gathered during recruitment to help determine which positions may be suitable for individual candidates.

Factors can include medical eligibility, educational background, language abilities, technical aptitude, personal preferences and the needs of the armed forces.

Some candidates may undergo additional interviews, examinations or selection programs for specialized units.

Others may be assessed for operational positions requiring particular physical or psychological qualifications.

The process is not simply a matter of choosing a preferred occupation.

Military requirements play a substantial role in determining assignments.

A recruit may hope to enter one branch of the armed forces but ultimately be assigned elsewhere.

This can create disappointment, particularly in a society where certain military positions carry considerable prestige.

At the same time, the recruitment system can introduce young people to professional fields they might not otherwise have considered.

Technical, medical, intelligence and communications positions may provide specialized experience that influences later education and employment.

The allocation of these opportunities, however, has also raised questions about fairness and access.

Candidates do not all enter the recruitment process with the same educational resources, social connections or preparation.

As a result, the system may both create opportunities for social mobility and reflect inequalities that already exist within Israeli society.

### The Meaning of Military Placement

Within the IDF, military assignments vary widely.

Combat soldiers may serve in infantry, armored formations, artillery, combat engineering, border defense or other operational units.

Other recruits work in intelligence, communications, logistics, transportation, maintenance, administration, medical services and technological support.

Some positions require extensive training before personnel become fully qualified.

Others involve shorter introductory programs followed by practical instruction within a unit.

The distinction between combat and non-combat service is important, but it should not be understood as a division between essential and unimportant work.

Modern armed forces depend on complex systems of information, transportation, medical care, equipment maintenance and communication.

A military operation cannot function effectively without personnel responsible for these supporting activities.

Nevertheless, Israeli society has historically attached particular recognition to certain combat units and specialized intelligence or technology programs.

Service in prestigious units can influence social status and professional networks after discharge.

For young recruits, placement can therefore feel consequential far beyond the immediate period of military service.

It may shape how they view themselves, how others perceive their contribution and which opportunities become available later.

### Basic Training: Learning to Become a Soldier

After enlistment, recruits generally undergo a period of basic military training known in Hebrew as *tironut*.

The length and intensity of training depend on the recruit's assignment and the requirements of the relevant military branch.

A soldier preparing for combat duties will usually receive more extensive physical and operational instruction than someone entering an administrative or technical position.

Basic training introduces recruits to the military chain of command, discipline, procedures and responsibilities.

It may include physical conditioning, military regulations, first aid, field exercises, weapons safety and instruction in military conduct.

Recruits are also expected to learn how to function within a structured organization where orders, schedules and responsibilities differ significantly from civilian life.

The transition can be demanding.

Daily routines may begin early and include organized activities, inspections, instruction and practical exercises.

Recruits must adapt to shared living arrangements, limited personal privacy and the expectations of commanders.

For many, the greatest challenge is not a single physical exercise.

It is learning to operate consistently under unfamiliar conditions while managing fatigue, uncertainty and the pressure to perform.

The experience can build confidence and independence.

It can also expose personal vulnerabilities.

The outcome depends on the individual, the training environment and the quality of leadership.

### Discipline, Authority and the Chain of Command

One of the most important changes recruits encounter is the military hierarchy.

Civilian life generally allows greater personal flexibility in decisions about time, movement and daily responsibilities.

Military institutions operate differently.

Soldiers are expected to follow lawful orders, respect the chain of command and carry out assigned duties.

Commanders are responsible for training personnel, maintaining discipline and preparing units to perform their missions.

This relationship places considerable authority in the hands of military leaders.

It also creates significant responsibilities.

Effective leadership requires more than issuing instructions.

Commanders must understand the capabilities and limitations of their personnel, recognize safety concerns and create conditions in which important information can move through the organization.

Poor leadership can have consequences for morale, operational effectiveness and individual welfare.

The events of October 7, 2023, demonstrated the importance of communication between junior personnel and senior commanders.

Subsequent investigations examined failures in the interpretation and escalation of warnings, reinforcing questions about how military institutions respond when information from lower-ranking soldiers challenges established assumptions.

A military hierarchy is necessary for coordinated operations.

But hierarchy can become dangerous when it discourages questions, suppresses relevant observations or prevents concerns from reaching decision-makers.

The challenge is to combine discipline with professional judgment and accountability.

### Training Beyond Physical Fitness

Military preparation involves much more than physical endurance.

Different roles require different combinations of technical knowledge, decision-making ability and professional competence.

Intelligence personnel may undergo specialized instruction in information analysis, languages or technical systems.

Medical personnel receive training relevant to emergency care and military healthcare.

Communications specialists learn to operate and maintain systems essential to command and coordination.

Technology-oriented recruits may enter programs involving software, cybersecurity, data analysis or other technical disciplines.

Combat personnel undergo further training appropriate to their operational assignments.

Across these different fields, military education also involves instruction in applicable laws, regulations and rules governing the use of force.

International humanitarian law establishes obligations relating to the protection of civilians, the treatment of detainees and the conduct of hostilities.

The effectiveness of legal training cannot be measured solely by whether instruction is formally provided.

It must also be evaluated through military practice, command decisions, accountability mechanisms and the investigation of alleged violations.

Military training is therefore both a technical and an ethical responsibility.

Soldiers must be prepared to carry out lawful missions while understanding the limits placed on military power.

### Life on a Military Base

Daily life in the IDF varies considerably depending on the unit, location and operational circumstances.

Some soldiers serve on bases that allow relatively frequent returns home.

Others are stationed at remote installations or assigned to duties that require extended periods away from their families.

Combat training and operational deployments may involve demanding schedules, field exercises and limited opportunities for personal communication.

Technical and administrative positions may follow more predictable routines, although this can change during emergencies.

Living arrangements also vary.

Some soldiers share accommodation with other personnel, while others travel between home and their place of service when their assignment permits.

Meals, equipment, transportation and access to facilities are organized according to military requirements.

For young recruits, living alongside people from different backgrounds can be a significant social experience.

They may encounter individuals from communities they rarely interacted with before enlistment.

Differences in language, religious practice, socioeconomic background and personal values can become part of everyday military life.

These encounters can encourage understanding and cooperation.

They can also produce tensions.

The military is not separate from the society in which it operates.

It carries many of that society's differences into its own institutions.

### Friendships, Identity and Belonging

Military service can create relationships that continue long after discharge.

Shared responsibilities, demanding training and the experience of relying on others may produce strong personal bonds.

For some former soldiers, friendships formed during service remain among the most important relationships of their adult lives.

These connections can influence education, employment and social networks.

Service may also affect how individuals understand their place within Israeli society.

A recruit who initially feels uncertain may develop confidence through acquiring new skills or assuming responsibility.

Another may discover that military life conflicts with personal expectations or values.

For immigrants or recruits from different linguistic backgrounds, military service can provide opportunities to improve Hebrew and develop familiarity with national institutions.

Yet experiences of belonging are not universal.

Individuals who feel excluded because of their background, beliefs or personal circumstances may encounter military life differently.

The same institution that creates solidarity for some can produce alienation for others.

Understanding military service therefore requires attention to individual experiences rather than assuming a single shared national identity.

### The Role of Family During Military Service

Military service rarely affects only the person wearing the uniform.

Families also experience its demands.

Parents may help their children prepare for enlistment, attend ceremonies and provide practical or emotional support during training.

For many families, the first weeks of service are marked by adjustment.

A son or daughter who previously lived at home may suddenly be subject to a schedule determined by military authorities.

Communication may become less frequent.

Visits home may depend on training requirements, operational duties or leave arrangements.

Parents may feel pride in their children's achievements while worrying about their safety.

These concerns can become particularly intense when soldiers are assigned to areas exposed to security threats.

Partners and siblings may also experience changes in family routines.

Military service can affect relationships, household responsibilities and plans for the future.

The emotional burden is not distributed equally.

Families with financial resources or strong support networks may be better equipped to manage disruptions.

Others may struggle when a family member's absence creates additional practical difficulties.

For soldiers whose families live abroad, separation can be especially challenging.

The IDF has support arrangements for certain personnel, including soldiers without immediate family support in Israel, often referred to as *lone soldiers*.

However, the existence of assistance programs does not eliminate the personal difficulties that some recruits experience.

### Lone Soldiers: Serving Without Family Nearby

The term *lone soldier* generally refers to military personnel who lack certain forms of immediate family support in Israel.

This can include individuals who immigrated without their parents, soldiers whose families live abroad and others recognized under relevant military criteria because of their personal circumstances.

Some lone soldiers are volunteers who moved to Israel specifically intending to serve.

Others are Israeli citizens whose family situations make military life particularly demanding.

Without parents or close relatives nearby, ordinary aspects of service can become more complicated.

A weekend leave may not involve returning to a family home.

Practical matters such as housing, laundry, meals and financial planning may require additional arrangements.

Emotional support can also be more difficult to access.

Government bodies, military programs and charitable organizations provide different forms of assistance to eligible lone soldiers.

These may include housing support, financial benefits, social activities and practical guidance.

The experience illustrates an important aspect of compulsory military service.

Although the military operates through standardized procedures, recruits enter it with very different personal circumstances.

Equal treatment does not always mean that everyone requires identical support.

### Psychological Pressure and Mental Health

Military training and service can create significant psychological demands.

Recruits must adapt to strict schedules, performance expectations and the possibility of being assigned responsibilities involving serious consequences.

For some, this environment encourages resilience and personal development.

For others, it may contribute to anxiety, isolation or emotional distress.

The psychological impact depends on many factors, including previous experiences, individual health, leadership, social support and exposure to traumatic events.

Combat service may involve additional risks associated with injury, death, violence and the loss of fellow soldiers.

Personnel working in intelligence or surveillance may also experience significant psychological pressure.

Monitoring threats, processing distressing information or making decisions under uncertainty can carry emotional consequences even when the soldier is not directly engaged in combat.

Military institutions have responsibilities to identify personnel who require assistance and provide appropriate medical and psychological care.

Access to support, confidentiality and the treatment of mental health concerns can influence whether individuals feel able to seek help.

Military culture may sometimes encourage endurance and self-reliance.

These qualities can be valuable, but they should not become barriers to recognizing genuine distress.

The long-term consequences of service may continue after discharge, particularly for personnel exposed to traumatic events.

### The Experience of Combat Training

For recruits entering combat roles, military preparation involves additional physical and operational demands.

Training may include extended field exercises, navigation, weapons instruction, teamwork and preparation for operating in difficult environments.

The precise requirements depend on the unit and its responsibilities.

Combat soldiers must learn to function as part of a coordinated team.

Their effectiveness depends not only on individual physical ability but also on communication, discipline, judgment and trust.

Training is intended to prepare personnel for circumstances in which mistakes can have serious consequences.

However, training can never fully reproduce the uncertainty of real combat.

Operational environments involve incomplete information, rapidly changing conditions and risks to both military personnel and civilians.

The ability to distinguish legitimate military targets from protected persons and objects is therefore a fundamental aspect of lawful military conduct.

Commanders and soldiers must operate within applicable legal frameworks, including international humanitarian law.

The responsibility to protect civilians is not suspended because an operation is dangerous or difficult.

For young recruits, learning to combine operational competence with legal and ethical responsibility is one of the most demanding aspects of military preparation.

### Military Service in a Divided Society

The IDF is often described as a unifying institution.

There is some basis for this description.

Military service brings together many individuals from different regions and backgrounds, creating opportunities for cooperation and shared experience.

However, the institution does not represent all sections of Israeli society equally.

As examined in the previous chapter, conscription obligations differ between communities.

Many Arab citizens are not routinely drafted, while arrangements for Druze citizens, ultra-Orthodox Jewish communities and religious women vary.

These differences affect who participates in the shared experience of military training.

They also influence the opportunities and social recognition associated with service.

Even among those who serve, access to prestigious units can depend on factors that extend beyond individual motivation.

Educational preparation, socioeconomic circumstances and recruitment pathways may influence placement.

Consequently, the military can both connect different groups and reproduce existing inequalities.

Its role as a national institution must be understood in this broader social context.

### The Transition from Military Service to Civilian Life

For many Israelis, compulsory military service ends during their early twenties.

The transition back into civilian life can be another major adjustment.

Former soldiers may pursue university education, vocational training, employment or travel.

Some choose to spend time abroad before beginning the next stage of their lives.

Others continue in professional military careers or remain connected to the armed forces through reserve obligations.

The skills acquired during service may influence future opportunities.

Technical experience, language training, leadership responsibilities and professional networks can be valuable in civilian employment.

However, the benefits of military service are not distributed equally.

A former member of a specialized technology unit may have access to different professional opportunities from someone whose military role involved routine security or logistical duties.

Some former soldiers may also need time to recover from physical injuries or psychological stress.

For others, returning to civilian life requires adjusting to a world with fewer formal structures and greater personal responsibility.

The transition illustrates how military service can influence the years that follow it.

For many Israelis, discharge marks the end of compulsory service but not the end of the military's role in their lives.

### The Human Meaning of Becoming a Soldier

Military training is designed to prepare individuals to perform duties within an organized armed force.

But its effects extend beyond professional instruction.

It can influence identity, relationships, personal values and future ambitions.

For some recruits, military service becomes a period of achievement, friendship and growing independence.

For others, it is associated with hardship, frustration or experiences that remain difficult to process.

Many encounter a combination of these realities.

The diversity of experiences challenges simplistic portrayals of Israeli military life.

Not every soldier is a combat soldier.

Not every recruit enters the military willingly or with the same expectations.

Not every person leaves service with identical opportunities or memories.

And not every Israeli citizen participates in the system at all.

Understanding the transition from civilian to soldier therefore requires looking beyond ceremonies, uniforms and military training exercises.

It requires recognizing the young people whose lives are shaped by the institution, the families who support them and the society that assigns military service such considerable importance.

The next chapter examines what happens after compulsory service ends for many Israelis.

Through the reserve system, military obligations can continue into adulthood, connecting national security to employment, marriage, parenthood and the responsibilities of everyday civilian life.

![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/25/d6/25d63f5d-099c-45e8-ad1b-346bc1c986ba/content/images/2026/10/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_The_IDF_Honors_Its_Reservists.jpg)

An Israeli reservist takes part in a military training exercise in the Golan Heights in March 2011\. Reserve duty connects Israel's civilian population with its military responsibilities, often requiring individuals to leave their families and workplaces temporarily. Photo: Israel Defense Forces / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 2.0.

## Chapter 5 — The Reservist System: When Civilian Life Meets Military Duty

### The Soldiers Who Return to Civilian Life — But Never Fully Leave the Military

For many Israelis, completing compulsory military service does not mean that their military obligations have ended.

A former soldier may return to civilian life, begin university studies, establish a business, build a career or start a family. Yet years after leaving active service, that same individual may receive orders to report for reserve duty.

Within a short period, everyday responsibilities can be replaced by military assignments.

A teacher may leave a classroom. A doctor may step away from a hospital department. An engineer may interrupt a major project. A parent may say goodbye to young children without knowing exactly when normal family life will resume.

This is the reality of Israel's military reserve system.

Known in Hebrew as *miluim*, reserve service has been a central component of Israeli national defense since the establishment of the state in 1948.

It allows the Israel Defense Forces to maintain a substantial pool of trained personnel without keeping all of them permanently in active military service.

But the system also creates a distinctive relationship between the military and civilian society.

National security is not carried exclusively by professional soldiers.

It can reach directly into workplaces, universities, businesses and family homes.

For those called to serve, the boundary between civilian and military life can change almost overnight.

### Why Israel Relies on Reservists

Israel's reserve system developed from a combination of strategic necessity and demographic limitations.

During the state's early years, its leaders faced a difficult problem.

Israel needed military forces capable of responding to major security threats, but its relatively small population and limited economic resources made it impractical to maintain a very large standing army.

The solution was to combine compulsory military service with a system of trained reservists.

After completing their initial service, eligible former soldiers could remain available for military duties.

In periods of relative stability, many would continue their civilian lives while participating in training or limited operational assignments.

During a national emergency, the military could call up additional personnel and significantly expand its available forces.

This arrangement became one of the defining characteristics of Israel's defense structure.

It provided the country with the ability to mobilize personnel who already possessed military training and experience.

At the same time, it reduced the need to employ every trained soldier on a permanent basis.

The model was based on an important assumption: that civilian society could temporarily release large numbers of people when national security required it.

That assumption has shaped Israel's economy, institutions and family life for generations.

### How the Reserve System Works

Reserve service is not identical for every former soldier.

Eligibility and obligations depend on factors including military training, previous assignments, age, rank, health, family circumstances and the requirements of the armed forces.

Some reservists are assigned to combat formations.

Others serve in intelligence, medical services, logistics, engineering, communications, transportation or administrative roles.

The frequency and duration of reserve service can vary considerably.

Some individuals participate in periodic training exercises or operational assignments.

Others may go for extended periods without being called.

Certain personnel remain particularly valuable because of specialized skills or previous experience.

Reserve obligations are governed by legislation and military regulations, which have changed over time.

The Reserve Service Law of 2008 established an important modern framework for reserve duty, including rules concerning the circumstances and duration of service.

However, emergency mobilization operates under different legal arrangements from routine reserve duty.

During a national emergency, the military may issue special call-up orders, commonly known as *Tzav 8*.

These orders can require reservists to report at short notice.

They are intended to allow the armed forces to respond rapidly when ordinary recruitment and scheduling procedures would be insufficient.

For reservists and their families, the distinction between routine duty and emergency mobilization is significant.

A planned training period may allow time to arrange childcare, work responsibilities and financial matters.

An emergency call-up may provide very little preparation time.

### The Historical Importance of Reserve Mobilization

Reservists have played major roles in several of Israel's wars.

During the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Six-Day War of 1967 and the Yom Kippur War of 1973, reserve mobilization was central to Israel's military response.

The 1973 war particularly demonstrated both the importance and the vulnerabilities of the system.

When Egyptian and Syrian forces launched coordinated attacks on October 6, 1973, Israel faced a major military emergency.

The mobilization of reserve formations became essential to reinforcing active forces and sustaining military operations.

The war also exposed the consequences of intelligence failures, insufficient preparedness and delays in responding to emerging threats.

These experiences contributed to a broader understanding that reserve forces could not compensate for every weakness in early warning or military planning.

A reserve-based defense system depends on time.

Personnel must be notified, travel to assembly points, receive equipment and become operationally ready.

If an attack develops faster than the mobilization process, active forces and local defensive units may face the initial assault without immediate reinforcement.

This vulnerability remained relevant decades later.

The events of October 7, 2023, again demonstrated the importance of the relationship between early warning, active military readiness and the ability to mobilize reserves.

### October 7, 2023: An Unprecedented Emergency Mobilization

The Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023, triggered one of the largest reserve mobilizations in Israel's history.

As the scale of the attacks became clear, the Israeli government and military initiated emergency measures to reinforce the armed forces.

Approximately 300,000 reservists were called up during the initial mobilization, according to Israeli military statements at the time.

The number was extraordinary for a country with a population of roughly ten million people.

The call-up affected nearly every sector of Israeli society.

Employees left workplaces.

University students interrupted their studies.

Business owners postponed operations.

Parents arranged emergency childcare.

Families adjusted to sudden separations.

Some reservists were mobilized for assignments connected to the Gaza war.

Others were deployed to Israel's northern border, where exchanges of fire with Hezbollah and other security threats created additional military demands.

Still others worked in intelligence, logistics, medical services, civil defense and operational support.

The mobilization demonstrated the military value of maintaining a large reserve force.

It also revealed how deeply the system depends on the willingness and capacity of civilians to interrupt their ordinary lives.

### The Families Behind the Reservists

When a reservist is called to duty, the effects extend far beyond the individual soldier.

Partners may suddenly become responsible for household management, childcare, financial decisions and emotional support.

Children may struggle to understand why a parent has left home or why communication has become less frequent.

Parents of adult reservists may experience renewed anxiety about their sons and daughters, even when those individuals have long since established independent lives.

These pressures can become particularly intense during prolonged military operations.

A short period of reserve training is fundamentally different from an extended deployment with an uncertain return date.

Families may be required to reorganize their lives repeatedly as service periods are extended or additional call-ups occur.

For households with young children, the absence of one parent can create considerable practical challenges.

School schedules, medical appointments, employment responsibilities and ordinary family routines must continue.

Some families receive support from relatives, neighbors or community organizations.

Others have fewer resources available.

The emotional burden may also differ according to the reservist's assignment.

Families of personnel serving in dangerous operational areas may experience constant concern about injury or death.

Those whose relatives perform support duties may face different uncertainties, including prolonged separation and unpredictable schedules.

In every case, reserve service illustrates how military obligations can become family obligations.

### The Economic Cost of Leaving Work Behind

Israel's reserve system creates significant economic consequences because many reservists are active members of the civilian workforce.

Unlike full-time professional soldiers, reservists may be employed in businesses, public institutions, hospitals, schools and technology companies.

When large numbers are mobilized, their absence can disrupt essential activities.

Employers may struggle to replace experienced personnel.

Projects may be delayed.

Small businesses may lose key employees or owners.

Public services may experience staffing shortages.

The effects can be particularly severe when mobilization continues for months rather than weeks.

Israel has legal arrangements intended to protect reservists' employment rights and provide compensation for periods of service.

The National Insurance Institute administers reserve service benefits under the applicable framework, while employment protections are established through relevant legislation.

However, financial compensation does not eliminate every consequence of prolonged absence.

A self-employed person may lose clients or business opportunities.

An employer may face costs associated with recruiting temporary staff.

A university student may miss examinations or delay graduation.

A family may experience financial pressure even when some income is replaced.

The economic burden is therefore distributed across reservists, their households, employers and the wider public.

### Small Businesses and the Hidden Costs of Mobilization

The consequences of reserve duty can be especially serious for small businesses.

A large organization may have the resources to redistribute responsibilities when an employee is called to military service.

A small company may depend heavily on one or two individuals.

If the owner is mobilized, operations may become difficult to maintain.

Appointments can be cancelled.

Customers may seek alternative suppliers.

Financial obligations such as rent, insurance and loan payments may continue even when revenue declines.

Some businesses may be able to operate with help from family members or employees.

Others may struggle to survive extended disruptions.

Government assistance programs and compensation mechanisms can provide support, but their availability and adequacy depend on eligibility rules and changing economic circumstances.

The effects of mobilization also extend to businesses whose employees are not directly called to duty.

Reduced consumer activity, disrupted supply chains and broader economic uncertainty can affect entire sectors.

This illustrates an important limitation of the reserve model.

A military system designed to reduce the costs of maintaining a large permanent army may transfer substantial costs to civilian society during prolonged emergencies.

### Reservists in Israel's Technology Sector

Israel's technology industry has become an important part of the national economy.

Many employees in the sector are former soldiers, and some have served in specialized military technology or intelligence units.

The relationship between military training and civilian innovation has contributed to Israel's reputation as a center for technology development.

However, the reserve system also creates challenges for this industry.

When experienced engineers, software developers, cybersecurity specialists and managers are called to duty, companies may face delays and operational difficulties.

Start-up businesses can be particularly vulnerable because they often operate with small teams and limited financial reserves.

A prolonged absence may affect product development, investment negotiations or customer relationships.

International companies with operations in Israel may also need to reorganize staffing arrangements.

At the same time, the technology sector has played a role in developing civilian assistance initiatives during periods of crisis.

Employees and volunteers have contributed technical skills to emergency coordination, information systems and support programs.

These activities demonstrate the complex relationship between military service, technological expertise and civilian resilience.

The same networks that support professional development may also be disrupted by national mobilization.

### Women, Reserve Duty and Unequal Responsibilities

Reserve service does not affect men and women in identical ways.

Although women serve in a wide range of military roles, reserve obligations and participation rates differ according to military occupation, legal arrangements and personal circumstances.

Historically, men have constituted a substantial majority of active reservists, particularly in combat formations.

Women may also serve in reserve positions, including operational, intelligence, medical and technical roles.

The distribution of reserve obligations raises questions about gender equality.

Women whose partners are mobilized may assume additional childcare and household responsibilities, even when they are not reservists themselves.

Female reservists may face the challenge of balancing military obligations with employment, caregiving and family expectations.

Single parents and households in which both partners have military responsibilities can experience particular difficulties.

The burden of military service is therefore not measured only by the number of people wearing uniforms.

It also includes the unpaid work and practical responsibilities carried by those who remain at home.

Understanding these indirect effects is essential to evaluating the social cost of reserve mobilization.

### The Psychological Burden of Repeated Deployment

Military service can place considerable psychological demands on reservists.

Unlike young recruits entering their first period of service, reservists may have established careers, families and long-term responsibilities.

Returning to military life can require a rapid adjustment.

An individual may move from a relatively predictable civilian environment into one characterized by danger, uncertainty and strict military discipline.

For personnel involved in combat, the risks can include physical injury, exposure to violence and the loss of fellow soldiers.

Other reservists may experience psychological strain through prolonged separation, demanding schedules or responsibilities involving high-stakes decisions.

Repeated deployments can make recovery and reintegration more difficult.

A reservist may return home physically but continue to experience stress, exhaustion or emotional difficulties.

Some may require professional psychological assistance.

Others may find that relationships, employment or daily routines have changed during their absence.

The experience is not uniform.

Many reservists return without lasting psychological difficulties, while others face significant challenges.

Responsible discussion of military mental health requires avoiding assumptions that all returning soldiers are traumatized.

It also requires recognizing that those who do need support should have access to appropriate care without stigma.

### Returning Home: The Challenges of Reintegration

The end of a reserve deployment does not necessarily mean an immediate return to normal life.

Reservists may need time to adjust to civilian routines.

Families may have developed new arrangements during their absence.

Children may have become accustomed to relying on one parent.

Partners may have assumed responsibilities that were previously shared.

Employers may have reorganized work assignments.

The returning reservist must navigate these changes while also adjusting to a less structured environment.

For some, the transition is relatively smooth.

For others, it involves frustration, emotional distance or difficulties communicating about their experiences.

The challenge may be especially significant after prolonged combat deployments.

Military environments often emphasize immediate responsibilities, teamwork and clearly defined chains of command.

Civilian life requires different forms of communication and decision-making.

A reservist may need to reconnect with family members who have experienced the same period of absence in very different ways.

Successful reintegration therefore involves more than providing leave from military duties.

It can require family support, workplace flexibility, medical services and recognition of the personal changes that may accompany service.

### The Reservist Protest Movement Before October 7

The political significance of Israel's reserve system became especially visible during the domestic crisis surrounding the government's proposed judicial changes in 2023.

The proposed reforms generated widespread protests and intense debate about the balance of power between the government, parliament and judiciary.

Some reservists, including personnel associated with prestigious military units, publicly opposed the proposals.

Certain reservists announced that they would suspend voluntary reserve service or stop reporting for duties that were not legally compulsory.

These actions became a major national controversy.

Supporters of the protest argued that they were defending democratic institutions and the rule of law.

Critics maintained that military service should remain separate from political disputes and warned that refusal to serve could undermine national security.

The controversy raised difficult questions about the relationship between military obligations and democratic protest.

Could reservists use their participation in the armed forces to express political opposition?

Where should the boundary lie between lawful protest and the refusal of military responsibilities?

And how should a democratic state respond when military personnel believe that government policies threaten the institutions they have sworn to defend?

These questions were unresolved when the attacks of October 7 occurred.

The subsequent emergency mobilization transformed the national debate, although it did not eliminate the underlying political disagreements.

### October 7 and the Return of Reservists

Following the attacks, large numbers of Israelis reported for reserve duty.

Some returned from overseas.

Others interrupted employment, education and family commitments.

The mobilization included people with different political beliefs, religious backgrounds and views about the government's policies.

For many, the immediate priority was responding to the security crisis.

The participation of reservists who had previously criticized the government demonstrated that political disagreement and willingness to serve were not necessarily incompatible.

However, the initial mobilization should not be interpreted as proof of permanent national unity.

As the war continued, debates emerged over military strategy, the fate of hostages, the humanitarian consequences in Gaza and the political leadership's responsibilities.

Reservists and their families expressed different views about these issues.

Some supported continued military operations.

Others called for changes in strategy, negotiated agreements or greater political accountability.

The reserve system therefore remained connected to the wider democratic debate.

Military service could create solidarity during an emergency while leaving substantial political disagreements unresolved.

### The Question of Fairness: Who Carries the Burden?

The prolonged mobilization after October 7 intensified an existing debate about the distribution of military obligations.

Many reservists were required to leave their families and workplaces for extended periods.

At the same time, significant sections of the population were not subject to comparable military requirements.

This contrast renewed public attention to the conscription arrangements applying to ultra-Orthodox Jewish men.

Critics of broad exemptions argued that the burden of military service had become increasingly unequal.

They questioned whether a relatively limited proportion of the population should repeatedly undertake demanding military obligations while others remained outside the main conscription framework.

Supporters of religious exemptions emphasized the importance of Torah study and the preservation of religious life.

Some also argued that military service required accommodations that existing structures did not adequately provide.

The debate involved practical as well as ideological concerns.

Expanding recruitment could affect military staffing, training facilities, budgets and the organization of service.

It could also require changes to religious and educational institutions.

The central question remained whether the state could maintain a system in which national security responsibilities were distributed so differently.

For many reservists, the issue was no longer an abstract political disagreement.

It concerned the repeated absence from their families, workplaces and communities.

### The Limits of a Citizen-Soldier Model

The reserve system offers important military advantages.

It allows Israel to maintain trained personnel who can be mobilized when necessary.

It also connects military service to a broad section of civilian society.

However, the system faces structural limitations.

Large-scale mobilization can disrupt economic activity.

Extended deployments can place pressure on families.

Repeated call-ups may affect morale and personal wellbeing.

Training and equipment requirements can become increasingly demanding as military technology and operational environments change.

The system also depends on maintaining the readiness and willingness of reservists over time.

A reserve force cannot function effectively through legal obligations alone.

Personnel must have appropriate training, equipment, leadership and support.

Public confidence in military institutions also matters.

When reservists believe that their service is being managed responsibly, the system may benefit from stronger motivation and trust.

When questions arise about political decision-making, military objectives or the fairness of service obligations, tensions can become more pronounced.

These challenges are particularly significant during prolonged conflicts.

A system originally designed to provide rapid reinforcement during emergencies may face increasing strain when exceptional mobilization becomes an extended feature of national life.

### The Civilian Consequences of Military Decisions

Military operations are often discussed in terms of strategy, territory, security and political objectives.

The reserve system reveals another dimension.

Decisions about military mobilization can directly affect the organization of civilian society.

A decision to extend deployments may influence employment, childcare, education and public services.

A decision to expand military operations may require additional personnel and financial resources.

A decision to maintain a high level of readiness may affect how frequently reservists are called away from their civilian responsibilities.

These consequences do not determine whether a military operation is lawful or strategically justified.

They do, however, form part of the broader responsibility of political and military leadership.

Democratic accountability requires consideration not only of military objectives but also of the human and economic costs involved in pursuing them.

The experiences of reservists and their families are therefore relevant to public debate about national security policy.

They demonstrate that military decisions can have consequences long after personnel return home.

### A System That Connects the Battlefield to Everyday Life

Israel's reserve system is one of the clearest examples of how national defense and civilian life intersect.

It enables the military to draw on trained personnel during emergencies.

It also places substantial responsibilities on individuals who spend most of their lives outside the armed forces.

For reservists, service can represent commitment, responsibility and solidarity.

For their families, it may involve sacrifice, uncertainty and prolonged separation.

For employers and educational institutions, it creates practical and economic challenges.

For Israeli society, it raises questions about fairness, sustainability and the relationship between citizenship and national defense.

The events following October 7 demonstrated both the importance of the reserve system and the pressures it can place on a country during prolonged conflict.

They also revealed that the burden of military service is not carried by soldiers alone.

It extends to partners, children, parents, colleagues, employers and communities.

Understanding the reserve system therefore requires looking beyond mobilization figures and military readiness.

It requires recognizing the civilian lives that continue behind every uniform.

Because when a reservist is called to duty, military service does not simply return to that individual's life.

It becomes part of the lives of everyone who depends on them.

And that reality raises a broader question about the Israeli society that sustains the armed forces: how do different communities experience military service, and what happens when the responsibilities of national defense are distributed unequally?

## Chapter 6 — Military Service Across Israel's Diverse Communities

### One Country, Different Experiences of Military Service

Military service is often described as one of the institutions that brings Israeli society together.

Young people from different regions and backgrounds may train alongside one another, share responsibilities and develop relationships that continue long after their service ends.

For many Jewish Israelis, military service is a familiar part of growing up. Families prepare for enlistment, former soldiers exchange experiences, and military service can influence education, employment and social connections.

But Israel is not a culturally or religiously uniform society.

Its population includes Jewish communities with different historical origins and religious traditions, Arab citizens who identify in different ways, Druze communities, Bedouin citizens, immigrants and people whose relationship with the state is shaped by complex political and historical experiences.

These differences influence how military service is understood.

For some citizens, serving in the IDF represents a contribution to national security and a source of belonging.

For others, military participation raises difficult questions about identity, political loyalty, religious obligations and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Some communities have longstanding traditions of military service.

Others are generally not conscripted or have historically received exemptions and deferments.

The result is a system in which military participation can strengthen a shared sense of responsibility among some groups while highlighting divisions between others.

Understanding these differences is essential to understanding Israeli society beyond the familiar image of a nation united in uniform.

### Jewish Israelis: Shared Obligations, Different Identities

Jewish Israelis constitute the majority of Israel's population, but they do not form a single cultural or religious community.

Their family histories reflect immigration from Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Ethiopia, the former Soviet Union and many other parts of the world.

Some families have lived in the region for generations.

Others arrived during the decades surrounding Israel's establishment or through later waves of immigration.

These backgrounds have contributed to differences in language, religious practice, political views and social experience.

Military service has often been presented as an institution capable of bringing these communities together.

Recruits may enter the armed forces with different traditions and experiences but encounter a shared military framework.

For some, service provides opportunities to develop Hebrew-language skills, build friendships and participate in national institutions.

However, the experience is not identical for every Jewish Israeli.

Secular, traditional, national-religious and ultra-Orthodox communities may hold different views about military obligations.

Some regard service as a central civic responsibility.

Others emphasize religious study, family traditions or alternative forms of public contribution.

Political beliefs also influence attitudes toward the military.

A person may support Israel's right to defend itself while disagreeing with particular government policies or military operations.

Another may view military service as a religious or national obligation.

Still another may question the moral implications of participating in operations involving Palestinian civilians.

These differences demonstrate that military participation cannot be used as a simple measure of political agreement.

Service in the IDF does not mean that all soldiers share the same beliefs about Israel's government, the conflict or the country's future.

### Secular and National-Religious Communities

Among many secular Jewish Israelis, military service has historically been associated with citizenship, national responsibility and the transition into adulthood.

For some families, several generations have served in the armed forces.

The experience may be regarded as a continuation of family tradition.

National-religious Jewish communities have also played an important role in military service.

Many young men from these communities participate in arrangements that combine religious education with military obligations, including *hesder* programs.

These frameworks allow eligible participants to divide their time between religious study and military service under specific arrangements.

Some religious women serve in the IDF, while others choose national or community service.

National-religious soldiers have become prominent in various military units, including combat formations.

Their participation reflects a relationship between religious identity, national belonging and military responsibility.

However, religious commitment does not produce a single political outlook.

Within religious communities, views differ concerning military policy, territorial questions, the peace process and the relationship between religious law and state institutions.

The growing visibility of religious soldiers has also generated debate about military culture.

Questions have emerged about gender integration, religious accommodations and the balance between military command and religious authority.

These issues demonstrate how the armed forces must operate within a society containing competing expectations about religion and public life.

### Mizrahi and Sephardi Jewish Communities

Jewish communities whose family histories are connected to the Middle East, North Africa and other regions have played a substantial role in Israel's military and civilian institutions.

The terms *Mizrahi* and *Sephardi* are sometimes used together, but they are not interchangeable and refer to overlapping historical, cultural and religious identities.

Large numbers of Jewish immigrants arrived from countries including Iraq, Morocco, Yemen, Egypt, Tunisia and Iran during the decades following Israel's establishment.

Their integration into Israeli society was shaped by major social and economic changes.

Many families encountered difficulties involving housing, employment, education and unequal access to opportunities.

Military service became one of the institutions through which younger generations entered wider Israeli society.

For some, the IDF provided training, social connections and opportunities for advancement.

Yet military service did not eliminate existing inequalities.

Educational background, geographic location and access to influential networks could affect military placement.

Recruits from disadvantaged communities were not always equally represented in prestigious technical or intelligence positions.

These patterns have been the subject of public debate and academic research.

At the same time, individuals from Mizrahi and Sephardi backgrounds have served throughout the military, including in senior leadership positions.

Their experiences cannot be reduced to a single story of disadvantage or integration.

The broader historical question concerns whether military service has functioned primarily as a pathway toward equality or whether it has also reproduced differences already present in society.

For many families, both realities may be relevant.

### Ethiopian Israelis: Service, Belonging and Equality

The experiences of Ethiopian Jewish Israelis illustrate another dimension of the relationship between military service and social integration.

Large numbers of Ethiopian Jews immigrated to Israel during major migration operations in the 1980s and early 1990s, including Operations Moses and Solomon.

For many families, arrival in Israel represented the fulfillment of a longstanding religious and cultural connection to the country.

It also required adapting to a new language, educational system and social environment.

Young Ethiopian Israelis entered the military alongside recruits from other communities.

For some, service offered opportunities to develop professional skills, establish social connections and strengthen their sense of belonging.

Military participation also became a source of pride within some families.

However, Ethiopian Israelis have faced documented concerns about discrimination, socioeconomic inequality and unequal treatment within Israeli institutions.

These issues have influenced public discussions about recruitment, military experience and access to leadership opportunities.

The question is not whether Ethiopian Israelis participate in national service.

They do.

The more important issue is whether military participation translates into equal treatment and opportunity.

Service can create a shared institutional experience, but it cannot by itself resolve inequalities that exist beyond the military.

### Russian-Speaking Israelis and the Military

Immigration from the former Soviet Union transformed Israeli society, particularly during the 1990s.

Hundreds of thousands of immigrants arrived with different educational backgrounds, languages and professional experiences.

Many were highly educated, while others faced difficulties transferring qualifications or establishing themselves in the Israeli labor market.

For younger immigrants, military service could become an important point of entry into Israeli society.

It provided opportunities to improve Hebrew, form friendships and become familiar with national institutions.

Some recruits brought technical or scientific knowledge that could be valuable in specialized military roles.

Others encountered challenges connected to language, cultural expectations and unfamiliar administrative systems.

The relationship between immigration and military service also involved questions of religious and legal identity.

Not every immigrant who arrived under Israel's Law of Return was recognized as Jewish under religious law.

This distinction could influence personal status matters, including marriage and religious services, even when individuals were Israeli citizens and subject to military obligations.

The experiences of Russian-speaking Israelis therefore illustrate how military service can contribute to national integration without eliminating differences in cultural or religious identity.

### Arab Citizens of Israel: A Different Relationship with the Military

Arab citizens of Israel make up a substantial minority of the population.

They include Muslim, Christian and Druze communities, as well as people who identify as Palestinian, Arab, Israeli or through combinations of these identities.

Their relationship with the IDF is shaped by a different historical experience from that of the Jewish majority.

For many Palestinian Arab citizens, the events of 1948 are connected to the Nakba, the displacement and dispossession experienced by Palestinians during the war.

Families may have relatives living in the West Bank, Gaza or neighboring countries.

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is therefore not only a matter of national security policy.

It can also involve family history, collective identity and personal relationships.

Most Muslim and Christian Arab citizens are not routinely conscripted into the IDF.

Some individuals volunteer, but military service is not a shared expectation across these communities.

For many, participation in the Israeli armed forces raises difficult moral and political questions.

Serving in an institution involved in military operations affecting Palestinians may conflict with personal or national identity.

Others may view voluntary service as an individual choice connected to employment opportunities, professional training or citizenship.

These perspectives vary.

It would be inaccurate to portray all Arab citizens as opposing military service, just as it would be inaccurate to suggest that volunteers represent the political views of their entire communities.

The issue also extends beyond enlistment.

In a society where military experience can influence access to professional networks and certain benefits, citizens who are not generally drafted may experience disadvantages.

This raises questions about how equal citizenship should operate when military obligations are distributed differently.

### Druze Citizens: Service and the Question of Recognition

Druze citizens occupy a distinctive position within Israel's military service system.

Since 1956, Druze men have generally been subject to compulsory military service, while Druze women are not routinely drafted.

The arrangement emerged through decisions and negotiations involving Israeli authorities and Druze leadership.

Over time, military service became an important tradition within many Druze families.

Druze soldiers have served in combat units, intelligence, border security and senior military positions.

Some communities regard service as an expression of commitment to the state and its security.

However, military participation has not eliminated disagreements about equality.

Druze citizens have raised concerns about land policies, planning restrictions, public investment and the constitutional recognition of minority communities.

The 2018 Nation-State Basic Law intensified these debates.

Critics within the Druze community argued that the law failed to reflect the equal civic standing they expected as citizens, particularly given their community's military contributions.

Other Druze citizens have maintained strong identification with Israeli state institutions while advocating changes through political and legal channels.

The Druze experience therefore illustrates an important distinction.

Military service may strengthen a relationship with the state without resolving every question about citizenship, identity or equal rights.

It also demonstrates that a community's relationship with the military can contain both loyalty and criticism.

### Bedouin Communities: Voluntary Service and Unequal Opportunities

Israel's Bedouin citizens are predominantly Arab Muslims, with significant communities in the Negev and northern Israel.

Their relationship with military service differs from that of Druze citizens.

Bedouin men are generally not subject to compulsory conscription, although some volunteer.

Historically, Bedouin soldiers have served in reconnaissance, tracking and other military roles.

Their knowledge of local terrain and environmental conditions has sometimes been valued by the armed forces.

For some volunteers, military service represents an opportunity for professional training, income or participation in state institutions.

For others, joining the IDF is not an acceptable choice.

Attitudes may be influenced by Palestinian identity, family history, community expectations and views about Israeli government policies.

Bedouin communities also face longstanding disputes involving land ownership, housing recognition, infrastructure and access to public services.

These issues influence how military service is understood.

Some former soldiers have questioned whether their contributions have resulted in equal treatment outside the military.

Others emphasize the personal opportunities they gained through service.

The broader lesson is that military participation cannot be separated from the civilian conditions in which communities live.

A soldier may serve the state while continuing to experience social or economic inequality.

### Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Communities: A Different Understanding of National Responsibility

Ultra-Orthodox Jewish communities, commonly known as Haredim, have historically maintained a distinctive relationship with military service.

Many Haredi men have pursued full-time religious study under deferment arrangements that developed during Israel's early years.

Within parts of the ultra-Orthodox community, Torah study is understood as a fundamental contribution to Jewish continuity and collective life.

Some religious leaders also express concern that military service may expose young men to environments that conflict with their religious practices and communal values.

Other Israelis argue that these arrangements create an unequal distribution of national responsibilities.

The disagreement has become increasingly significant as Israel's ultra-Orthodox population has grown.

Military manpower requirements, prolonged reserve mobilization and public debate about equal obligations have intensified pressure for changes.

In June 2024, Israel's Supreme Court ruled that the government lacked a legal basis to continue broad non-enforcement of conscription obligations for eligible ultra-Orthodox yeshiva students under the arrangements then in place.

The ruling did not immediately resolve questions about recruitment capacity, implementation or religious accommodations.

Some ultra-Orthodox men do serve in the IDF, including through frameworks intended to accommodate religious observance.

However, participation varies considerably, and opposition to compulsory recruitment remains strong within parts of the community.

The debate reflects competing understandings of responsibility.

One emphasizes military participation as a shared civic obligation.

Another emphasizes religious study and the preservation of communal institutions.

The challenge for Israeli policymakers is to reconcile these claims within a legal framework that respects individual rights and addresses national security requirements.

### Immigrants and Lone Soldiers: Finding a Place in a New Society

Military service also plays a role in the lives of immigrants who arrive in Israel from other countries.

Some young immigrants become eligible for compulsory service under rules that depend on factors such as age, immigration status and personal circumstances.

Others volunteer.

For individuals arriving without immediate family support, military life can be especially demanding.

Some are recognized as *lone soldiers*, a category that includes certain service members whose parents live abroad or who lack adequate family support in Israel.

These soldiers may face practical challenges involving housing, finances and emotional wellbeing.

At the same time, military service can provide opportunities to build relationships and become familiar with Israeli society.

Immigrants may encounter people from backgrounds different from their own and develop language or professional skills.

However, integration through military service is not always straightforward.

Cultural differences, unfamiliar military expectations and separation from family can create difficulties.

For some immigrants, military service strengthens their sense of belonging.

For others, it raises questions about identity and the expectations placed on newcomers.

The experience illustrates how military institutions can become part of the wider process of immigration and social integration.

### Circassian Citizens and Military Service

A smaller but important community within Israel is the Circassian population.

Circassians are a predominantly Muslim ethnic group whose ancestors originated in the North Caucasus.

Circassian communities were established in the region during the Ottoman period, long before the creation of the State of Israel.

In Israel, Circassian men have generally been subject to compulsory military service under arrangements developed during the state's early decades.

The community has maintained distinctive cultural traditions and languages while participating in Israeli public institutions.

Circassian military service demonstrates that religion alone does not determine conscription arrangements.

Although Circassians are predominantly Muslim, their service obligations differ from those of most Muslim Arab citizens.

This distinction reflects historical and political arrangements rather than a uniform policy based on religious affiliation.

The Circassian example highlights the complexity of Israel's military recruitment system.

Communities that may appear similar when classified only by religion can have very different legal obligations and relationships with the state.

### Military Service and Social Mobility

One of the strongest arguments in favor of broad military participation is that service can create opportunities for individuals from different backgrounds.

Military training may provide professional skills, leadership experience and access to networks that influence later employment.

Certain intelligence and technology units have become particularly associated with Israel's high-technology sector.

Former personnel may use skills acquired during service to pursue careers in software development, cybersecurity, engineering or business.

However, these opportunities are not equally available to every recruit.

Selection for specialized units may depend on educational preparation, technical knowledge and other qualifications.

Young people from communities with greater access to educational resources may be better positioned to meet those requirements.

As a result, military service can create opportunities while also reinforcing socioeconomic differences.

The issue becomes particularly important when military experience is treated as a qualification in civilian employment.

Citizens who were never required to serve may be excluded from some professional networks or opportunities.

Those who served in less prestigious roles may also receive different advantages from former members of elite units.

Military service can therefore influence social mobility, but it does not guarantee equal outcomes.

### The Limits of Military Integration

The IDF is sometimes described as a melting pot in which social differences become less important.

There is evidence that military service can bring together people who might otherwise have limited contact.

Shared training, operational responsibilities and personal relationships can encourage cooperation across cultural and social boundaries.

However, military institutions cannot automatically overcome divisions that exist within wider society.

Differences in religion, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and political identity do not disappear when individuals enter the armed forces.

Nor does military participation resolve disputes concerning minority rights, housing, education or economic opportunity.

The experiences of Druze and Bedouin citizens, Ethiopian Israelis and other communities illustrate this limitation.

Military service may create a sense of belonging while leaving broader grievances unresolved.

For citizens who do not serve, the military may function less as an institution of integration and more as a reminder of their different relationship with the state.

This is particularly relevant in discussions about Palestinian Arab citizens and the relationship between military service and national identity.

A society cannot be considered fully integrated solely because some of its citizens share military experiences.

Equal citizenship also depends on civilian institutions, political representation and the protection of rights.

### Military Service, Identity and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

The relationship between military service and identity becomes especially complex when viewed through the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

For many Jewish Israelis, the IDF is associated with national defense and the protection of their communities.

For many Palestinians, including those living in the occupied West Bank, the Israeli military is associated with checkpoints, arrests, military operations and the broader system of occupation.

These perspectives emerge from different historical experiences and relationships with state power.

Palestinians living in the occupied West Bank are not Israeli citizens as a general rule and are not part of Israel's ordinary citizen conscription system. The legal and political situation of East Jerusalem residents differs, with many holding Israeli permanent residency rather than citizenship.

Palestinians in Gaza likewise are not subject to Israel's ordinary military conscription system.

These distinctions matter because military service in Israel is not simply a question of who wears a uniform.

It is also connected to the relationship between the state, its citizens and populations affected by its military actions.

For Israeli soldiers, military service may involve responsibilities they understand as necessary for national security.

For Palestinian civilians, encounters with Israeli military personnel may involve restrictions, fear or direct consequences for everyday life.

Recognizing these different experiences does not require treating every claim or action as equivalent.

It requires examining the relevant facts, legal obligations and human consequences.

International humanitarian law places obligations on armed forces regarding the protection of civilians and the treatment of people under their control.

Those obligations remain relevant regardless of a soldier's personal motivations or national identity.

### A Society Connected by Service, Divided by Experience

Israel's military service system reflects the country's diversity as much as its security requirements.

For some communities, service is compulsory and deeply connected to national identity.

For others, it is voluntary, contested or generally absent from everyday expectations.

Within communities that do serve, military experiences differ according to assignment, gender, socioeconomic background and personal circumstances.

The IDF can create friendships, professional opportunities and shared responsibilities.

It can also reflect inequalities and political disagreements that exist beyond the military.

These realities challenge the idea that military service has one meaning for all Israelis.

For a Jewish recruit, a Druze soldier, a Bedouin volunteer, an Ethiopian Israeli, a religious student or an Arab citizen who does not serve, the relationship between military service and citizenship may be fundamentally different.

Understanding these differences is necessary to understand the broader debate about national responsibility.

Because the central question is not simply whether military service unites Israeli society.

It is whether a society with different histories, identities and legal obligations can develop a shared understanding of equality, citizenship and responsibility.

The next chapter examines one of the most contentious expressions of this debate: the long-running dispute over ultra-Orthodox military conscription, and the growing political pressure to redefine who must serve.

## Chapter 7 — The Haredi Conscription Debate: Religion, Equality and Politics

### A Question That Divides Israeli Society

Few domestic issues in Israel expose the tensions between religion, citizenship, national security and political power as clearly as the debate over military service for ultra-Orthodox Jewish men.

For decades, many Haredi men studying in religious institutions were able to defer military service under arrangements that developed shortly after the establishment of the state.

What began as a limited accommodation for religious scholars gradually became a major political and constitutional controversy.

The issue raises a fundamental question: should citizens who belong to different religious communities be subject to different military obligations?

For many Israelis who serve in the armed forces, particularly those repeatedly called to reserve duty, the debate concerns fairness and the distribution of personal risk.

For many ultra-Orthodox families, it concerns the preservation of religious education, communal identity and a way of life they believe could be threatened by compulsory military service.

For political leaders, the issue has repeatedly become a test of coalition stability.

For Israel's courts, it concerns the rule of law and the principle of equality.

And for the military, it is increasingly connected to practical questions about personnel shortages and operational readiness.

The controversy cannot be understood simply as a disagreement between religious and secular citizens.

It involves competing interpretations of national responsibility, different views of Jewish identity and decades of political decisions that have shaped Israeli society.

### Who Are the Haredim?

The term *Haredim* refers to ultra-Orthodox Jewish communities whose religious lives are generally characterized by strict observance of Jewish law, intensive religious education and strong communal institutions.

The Haredi population is not a single, uniform group.

It includes different Hasidic movements, Lithuanian or non-Hasidic religious traditions, Sephardi ultra-Orthodox communities and other groups with distinct religious leadership and cultural practices.

Attitudes toward the Israeli state, political participation, employment and military service vary within these communities.

Some Haredim participate actively in Israeli political institutions.

Others maintain a more distant relationship with secular state structures.

A smaller number reject aspects of political Zionism on religious grounds.

These distinctions matter because public discussion sometimes portrays ultra-Orthodox Israelis as though they all share identical beliefs.

In reality, their communities contain internal disagreements about education, employment, public policy and the appropriate relationship with the military.

Some Haredi men already serve in the IDF.

Others support forms of civilian contribution but oppose compulsory military recruitment.

Many religious leaders continue to defend full-time Torah study as a central communal obligation.

The conscription debate therefore concerns both the relationship between Haredi society and the wider state and disagreements within ultra-Orthodox communities themselves.

### The Origins of the Exemption System

The roots of the controversy lie in the early years of Israel's independence.

In 1949, Prime Minister and Defense Minister David Ben-Gurion approved arrangements allowing approximately 400 yeshiva students to avoid immediate military service while continuing religious studies.

A *yeshiva* is an institution devoted to the study of Jewish religious texts, particularly the Torah and Talmud.

The decision reflected the circumstances of the period.

The Holocaust had devastated Jewish religious institutions and communities across Europe.

Religious leaders feared that traditional centers of Jewish scholarship could disappear.

Preserving religious education was therefore considered an urgent responsibility.

Ben-Gurion's accommodation also reflected the political challenges of building a state that included both secular Zionist movements and religious communities.

The arrangement was relatively limited at first.

However, the underlying principle would become increasingly significant as Israel's population grew.

Over time, deferments expanded and became embedded in political agreements and administrative practice.

What began as a narrow arrangement for a limited number of students evolved into a much larger system affecting the military obligations of a growing population.

### Torah Study as a Form of National Contribution

To understand Haredi opposition to compulsory service, it is necessary to examine how religious study is understood within many ultra-Orthodox communities.

For observant Jews who place Torah learning at the center of communal life, religious scholarship is not simply an academic pursuit.

It is a religious obligation connected to the preservation of Jewish tradition, ethical teaching and spiritual continuity.

Within some Haredi traditions, sustained religious study is also understood as contributing to the protection and wellbeing of the Jewish people.

This perspective differs fundamentally from the secular understanding of national defense as a responsibility fulfilled primarily through military service.

For many ultra-Orthodox religious leaders, the preservation of Torah scholarship is itself a form of collective responsibility.

Critics of broad military deferments challenge the idea that religious study can substitute for obligations involving physical danger, compulsory service and extended separation from family.

They argue that religious commitment does not remove the state's responsibility to distribute security burdens fairly.

The disagreement is therefore not only about whether religious study is valuable.

It concerns whether that value provides a sufficient legal and ethical justification for exemption from a duty imposed on other citizens.

A democratic society may recognize religious freedom while still debating the limits of exemptions from generally applicable laws.

### The Growth of the Haredi Population

The demographic development of ultra-Orthodox society transformed the conscription debate.

During Israel's early decades, the number of men receiving religious deferments was relatively small.

As Haredi communities expanded, the number of students pursuing long-term religious education also increased.

By the twenty-first century, the scale of the arrangements had become significantly different from the circumstances in which they were originally introduced.

The issue was no longer a limited accommodation affecting several hundred students.

It involved a substantial population of military-age men and a growing share of younger Israeli society.

These changes affected national security planning, public finances, education and employment.

They also intensified public concern about the long-term sustainability of a conscription system in which obligations differed so significantly between communities.

For some policymakers, expanding Haredi military participation became a practical response to demographic change.

For others, it represented a threat to established religious institutions.

The debate increasingly involved questions about Israel's future social structure.

### The Role of Religious Education

Religious education is central to many Haredi communities.

Boys and young men may spend much of their education studying religious texts within institutions that place less emphasis on certain subjects commonly taught in other Israeli schools.

Educational arrangements vary between institutions and communities.

For some young men, continued study in a yeshiva or *kollel* forms the foundation of their adult religious lives.

A kollel generally refers to an institution in which married men pursue advanced religious study.

These educational pathways are closely connected to family expectations, religious leadership and communal identity.

Compulsory military service can interrupt this structure.

Some religious leaders fear that young men entering the military will be exposed to social environments and values that differ from those of their communities.

Concerns may include gender integration, religious observance, military culture and the authority of religious institutions.

Supporters of expanded recruitment argue that appropriate accommodations could allow religious men to serve without abandoning their beliefs.

Critics within Haredi society question whether such accommodations can adequately preserve the religious environment they consider necessary.

The disagreement therefore extends beyond the length of military service.

It concerns the influence of state institutions over religious education and communal life.

### The Political Power of Ultra-Orthodox Parties

Israel's parliamentary system has made the conscription issue especially politically sensitive.

Governments are generally formed through coalitions of parties that must maintain sufficient support in the Knesset.

Ultra-Orthodox political parties have frequently played important roles in coalition negotiations.

Two particularly influential parties have been Shas, associated primarily with Sephardi and Mizrahi ultra-Orthodox constituencies, and United Torah Judaism, an alliance associated with Ashkenazi Haredi communities.

These parties have advocated policies concerning religious education, family support, religious institutions and military service arrangements.

Their influence has often been especially significant when larger parties require coalition partners to form or maintain a government.

As a result, conscription policy has repeatedly become part of broader political negotiations.

Governments have attempted to reconcile military requirements, legal challenges and the demands of coalition partners.

Critics argue that this has allowed short-term political considerations to delay necessary reforms.

Supporters of negotiated arrangements maintain that changes affecting deeply rooted religious institutions require political compromise rather than coercion.

The result has been a cycle of legislative proposals, court challenges, political disagreements and incomplete implementation.

### The Courts and the Principle of Equality

Israel's Supreme Court has played a central role in the conscription debate.

Over several decades, legal challenges questioned whether broad deferments for yeshiva students were compatible with the principle of equality and whether governments had the authority to maintain them without clear legislative authorization.

A major development occurred in 1998, when the Supreme Court ruled that arrangements of such national significance required a proper legislative foundation rather than relying solely on administrative discretion.

This contributed to the passage of the Tal Law in 2002.

The legislation attempted to create a framework through which ultra-Orthodox men could continue religious studies while providing routes toward military or civilian service.

However, the law did not resolve the underlying dispute.

In 2012, the Supreme Court ruled that the Tal Law failed to meet constitutional equality requirements.

Further legislative attempts followed.

In 2017, the court again invalidated key provisions of a conscription framework that it found insufficiently addressed unequal treatment.

These decisions established an important legal principle.

The government could not indefinitely maintain broad differences in military obligations without an adequate legal basis consistent with constitutional requirements.

Nevertheless, translating court rulings into recruitment policy proved difficult.

Political resistance, administrative challenges and disputes over enforcement repeatedly complicated implementation.

### June 2024: A Landmark Supreme Court Ruling

The legal controversy reached another major turning point on June 25, 2024.

Israel's Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the government could not continue broadly refraining from drafting eligible ultra-Orthodox yeshiva students without a valid legal basis.

The court concluded that the existing legal situation did not permit the government to distinguish between eligible yeshiva students and other people subject to conscription in the manner it had been doing.

The ruling also addressed state funding for religious educational institutions.

Where funding depended on students benefiting from deferments that no longer had a lawful basis, the government could not continue providing that support under the same arrangements.

The judgment was significant because it connected military recruitment policy to the fundamental requirement that government authorities act according to law.

It did not, however, establish that every ultra-Orthodox man would immediately enter the military.

Actual recruitment required administrative action, military preparation and decisions about enforcement.

The ruling also did not eliminate the possibility that the Knesset could enact a new lawful framework.

It did establish that the absence of such a framework could not justify continuing broad non-enforcement.

The decision intensified political tensions at a time when Israel was facing extraordinary military demands following October 7.

### The War After October 7 Changed the Debate

The Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023, and the subsequent war transformed the public discussion about military service.

Israel mobilized large numbers of reservists and maintained substantial military operations over an extended period.

Families experienced repeated deployments, prolonged separations and the loss of loved ones.

Employers, universities and businesses faced disruptions as personnel were called away from civilian responsibilities.

For many reservists, the question of unequal military obligations became increasingly personal.

The debate was no longer confined to legal principles or political agreements.

It concerned the physical and emotional burdens carried by those repeatedly required to serve.

Families of soldiers questioned why their relatives were expected to undertake extended military duties while large numbers of eligible men remained outside the recruitment system.

Military officials also raised concerns about personnel shortages.

These pressures strengthened arguments for expanding the number of citizens participating in military service.

At the same time, ultra-Orthodox leaders continued to defend religious education and oppose recruitment arrangements they believed threatened their communities.

The war did not create the conscription controversy.

It intensified a disagreement that had developed over generations.

### Military Manpower and Operational Requirements

The debate over Haredi recruitment has practical military implications.

A modern armed force requires personnel for combat, intelligence, logistics, medical support, technology and numerous other responsibilities.

When operational commitments increase, the demand for trained personnel can rise significantly.

Extended military operations also place pressure on reservists who must repeatedly interrupt civilian life.

During a Knesset committee discussion in May 2026, an IDF human resources official described a personnel shortfall of approximately 12,000 soldiers, including a substantial need for combat personnel.

Such estimates reflect military assessments at a particular point in time and may change as operational conditions and recruitment policies evolve.

Expanding recruitment among underrepresented populations is one possible response.

However, the number of people legally eligible for service is not identical to the number who can immediately fill military positions.

Recruits require medical assessments, training, equipment, commanders and appropriate assignments.

Some may be suited to combat roles.

Others may contribute through technical, administrative or support positions.

Recruitment reforms therefore involve more than issuing additional call-up notices.

They require military planning and resources.

### The Challenge of Religious Accommodation

One proposed approach has been to develop military service frameworks that better accommodate ultra-Orthodox religious practice.

Such arrangements may include access to appropriate food, religious observance, prayer schedules and environments designed to address particular communal requirements.

Some military programs have sought to provide opportunities for Haredi men to serve while maintaining their religious commitments.

These initiatives demonstrate that religious observance and military participation are not necessarily incompatible.

However, their effectiveness and acceptability remain contested.

Some ultra-Orthodox leaders oppose compulsory recruitment even when accommodations are offered.

Others distinguish between men who pursue full-time religious scholarship and those who may be willing to undertake military or civilian service.

Within the wider Israeli public, questions also arise about whether specialized arrangements impose additional costs or create unequal conditions.

Religious accommodation is a legitimate consideration in a diverse society.

But its implementation requires balancing individual religious freedom, operational requirements and the rights of other service members.

The central challenge is determining which accommodations can be provided without undermining military effectiveness or creating unjustified differences in civic obligations.

### Employment, Education and Economic Independence

The conscription controversy is closely connected to wider economic questions.

Within parts of Haredi society, men may pursue extended religious study while women participate substantially in paid employment and household financial support.

Employment patterns vary across communities and have changed over time.

Some ultra-Orthodox men work in business, technology, education and other sectors.

Others remain in full-time religious study for extended periods.

Economists and policymakers have debated the consequences of these patterns for household income, productivity, public expenditure and long-term economic growth.

Military service can influence employment pathways because some IDF positions provide technical training, professional experience and social networks.

Supporters of expanded Haredi recruitment argue that appropriate military programs could also help participants acquire skills useful in civilian employment.

Others contend that employment and military service should not be treated as the same policy issue.

A person may participate in the workforce without serving in the armed forces, and military recruitment does not automatically resolve educational or economic inequalities.

The relationship between religious education, employment and conscription therefore requires careful analysis.

Military reform alone cannot address every economic challenge affecting ultra-Orthodox communities.

### The 2026 Enforcement Dispute

By 2026, the controversy had moved beyond the question of whether eligible Haredi men were legally subject to conscription.

It increasingly concerned whether the government was taking sufficient action to enforce that obligation.

In April 2026, Israel's High Court of Justice addressed the state's failure to implement earlier rulings and required stronger measures relating to enforcement and compliance.

The decision reflected judicial concern that legal obligations were not being translated into effective administrative action.

The political conflict intensified during the summer.

In July 2026, the Knesset passed temporary legislation intended to suspend certain enforcement proceedings against eligible yeshiva students who had failed to report for military service.

The Supreme Court quickly suspended implementation of the measure while considering legal challenges.

In September 2026, the court struck down the legislation.

The dispute illustrated the continuing conflict between parliamentary attempts to manage the issue politically and judicial requirements concerning equality and lawful enforcement.

It also demonstrated why the legal status of conscription arrangements must be distinguished from their practical implementation.

A court may establish that an obligation exists.

Whether that obligation is enforced consistently depends on government action, administrative capacity and compliance with judicial decisions.

As of October 2026, the broader debate over how to recruit ultra-Orthodox men while addressing religious concerns and military requirements remains unresolved.

### Protests and Public Resistance

Attempts to expand Haredi conscription have repeatedly generated public demonstrations.

Some protests have taken place in Jerusalem, Bnei Brak and other locations with substantial ultra-Orthodox populations.

Demonstrators have expressed opposition to compulsory military recruitment and defended the importance of religious study.

Some protests have remained peaceful.

Others have involved confrontations with police, road blockages or arrests.

It is important not to portray all ultra-Orthodox citizens as participating in demonstrations or endorsing confrontational tactics.

The community contains differing attitudes toward political protest and relations with state institutions.

Likewise, support for enforcing conscription is not limited to secular Israelis.

Religious Zionist soldiers, reservists and other religious citizens have also questioned the fairness of broad exemptions.

The public debate therefore crosses familiar divisions between religious and secular society.

It concerns competing interpretations of religious obligation, citizenship and the responsibilities of the state.

### Can Civilian Service Provide an Alternative?

One proposed response to unequal military obligations is to expand civilian or national service.

Such programs can involve work in healthcare, education, emergency services, social welfare and other public institutions.

Supporters argue that civilian service could allow individuals who do not enter the military to contribute to society.

For some religious communities, this may offer a more acceptable framework than conventional military recruitment.

However, critics question whether civilian service can be considered equivalent to military service during periods of substantial security threats.

Military personnel may face physical danger, extended deployments and obligations that differ significantly from those associated with civilian programs.

The duration, responsibilities and risks of different forms of service are therefore central to the debate.

Another question concerns whether participation should be compulsory or voluntary.

A universal national service system could potentially create new civic obligations for communities that have historically not been drafted, including Arab citizens.

Such a proposal would raise separate political and ethical questions, particularly for citizens whose relationship with the military is shaped by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Civilian service may offer one element of a broader policy response.

It does not automatically resolve the issue of equal military obligations.

### The Limits of Political Compromise

For decades, Israeli governments have attempted to find arrangements acceptable to military authorities, religious leaders, coalition partners and the courts.

These efforts have often struggled because the parties involved define the problem differently.

For military planners, the priority may be obtaining sufficient personnel.

For reservists and their families, it may be distributing obligations more fairly.

For Haredi leaders, it may be preserving religious institutions and communal autonomy.

For courts, the central issue is whether government policy complies with the law.

For politicians, coalition stability and public support may also influence decisions.

A compromise that satisfies one group may be rejected by another.

Gradual recruitment targets may be criticized as inadequate by those demanding equality.

Immediate compulsory recruitment may be viewed as unacceptable by communities concerned about religious freedom.

Specialized service programs may address some practical concerns while leaving broader questions about legal obligations unresolved.

These disagreements explain why the issue has persisted despite repeated legislative initiatives.

The difficulty is not simply a lack of policy proposals.

It is the absence of a broadly accepted understanding of what equal national responsibility should require.

### Beyond Religion: A Debate About the Social Contract

The Haredi conscription controversy raises questions extending far beyond one community.

It concerns the relationship between citizens and the state.

In a system of compulsory military service, the government requires eligible individuals to surrender a degree of personal freedom and undertake responsibilities that may involve serious danger.

Such obligations demand a clear legal foundation and public justification.

When exemptions are granted, the state must explain why different treatment is warranted.

Religious freedom is an important democratic principle.

So is equality before the law.

National security creates additional responsibilities, but it does not eliminate the need to justify differences between citizens.

The challenge is to determine how these principles can coexist.

For some Israelis, equal citizenship requires broadly shared military or national service.

For others, a democratic society must recognize that different communities contribute in different ways.

Still others question whether compulsory military service should remain such a central measure of civic participation.

These positions reflect competing visions of Israeli society.

### A Question That Remains Unresolved

The debate over ultra-Orthodox military service began with a limited accommodation in the earliest years of the Israeli state.

Over time, demographic change, political agreements and repeated legal challenges transformed it into one of the country's most consequential domestic controversies.

The war following October 7 intensified the issue by placing extraordinary demands on soldiers, reservists and their families.

Supreme Court decisions in 2024 and 2026 reinforced the legal requirement that government authorities enforce conscription obligations according to law.

Yet legal rulings alone cannot resolve the social and political disagreements surrounding recruitment.

The future of the system will depend on decisions about religious accommodation, military requirements, enforcement, education and the distribution of civic responsibilities.

It will also depend on whether Israeli political leaders can establish arrangements that are legally sustainable and publicly credible.

The deeper question is not whether religious life or national defense matters more.

It is how a diverse society can protect religious freedom while ensuring that the responsibilities and sacrifices demanded by the state are distributed fairly.

For the soldiers who serve, the families who wait and the communities concerned about their future, the outcome will have consequences far beyond military recruitment.

It will help define the relationship between religion, citizenship and equality in Israel for generations to come.

![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/25/d6/25d63f5d-099c-45e8-ad1b-346bc1c986ba/content/images/2026/10/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Sleeping_in_the_Sand.jpg)

Soldiers from the IDF's mixed-gender Caracal Battalion take a brief moment of rest in June 2012\. Military service involves not only operational responsibilities but also physical exhaustion and emotional demands. Photo: Noa City-Eliyahu / Bamahane / Israel Defense Forces / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 2.0.

## Chapter 8 — Families, Relationships and the Emotional Cost of Service

### The Families Behind Every Uniform

Military service is often described through the language of national security, operational readiness and military responsibility.

Yet behind every soldier stands a network of people whose lives may also be shaped by the demands of service.

Parents, partners, children, siblings and close friends experience military obligations in ways that are rarely visible in official accounts of defense policy.

For some families, enlistment is a moment of pride.

For others, it is accompanied by fear, uncertainty and difficult questions about the future.

Often, these emotions exist together.

In Israel, where compulsory service is a familiar part of life for many Jewish families and certain other communities, the transition into military life can affect several generations.

Parents who once served themselves may watch their children enter the same institution.

Grandparents may remember earlier wars.

Younger siblings may grow up expecting that they, too, will eventually be called to serve.

The military therefore occupies a place not only in national institutions but also in family histories.

However, the emotional consequences of service are not distributed equally.

A family whose child works in an administrative position may experience military life differently from one whose son or daughter serves in a combat unit.

The experiences of a reservist's partner may differ from those of parents whose eighteen-year-old child has just enlisted.

And families who have lost loved ones carry burdens that cannot be measured through service records or mobilization statistics.

Understanding military service in Israel requires looking beyond the individual soldier.

It requires examining the lives that continue at home.

### When a Child Becomes a Soldier

For many Israeli parents, the approach of their child's enlistment is a significant family milestone.

The months before recruitment may involve medical assessments, selection procedures, conversations about military assignments and preparations for leaving home.

Some families celebrate the occasion.

Others approach it with considerable apprehension.

Parents may feel proud that their child is becoming more independent while also worrying about the risks associated with military service.

These concerns can be especially strong when a young person is assigned to a combat unit or a military installation exposed to security threats.

The transition may be emotionally complicated because military service often begins at an age when many young adults are still closely connected to their families.

A person who recently attended secondary school may soon be expected to make decisions within an institution where mistakes can have serious consequences.

Parents must adjust to having less influence over their child's daily routine.

They may not know exactly where their child is stationed or when the next opportunity for communication will arise.

During training, limited telephone access or demanding schedules can make ordinary family contact difficult.

For some parents, the experience becomes easier as they gain confidence in their child's ability to adapt.

For others, uncertainty remains a constant feature of service.

The emotional experience is rarely limited to one feeling.

Pride, anxiety, frustration and hope may all be present within the same family.

### Growing Up in a Society Where Military Service Is Expected

In many Israeli communities, children encounter the military long before they become eligible for service.

They may have parents who are reservists, older siblings who are soldiers or relatives who served during previous conflicts.

Military uniforms can be familiar sights in public transportation, shopping areas and family gatherings.

School discussions, national ceremonies and public commemorations may also introduce young people to the role of the armed forces.

These experiences can shape how children understand citizenship, responsibility and national identity.

For some, military service becomes an anticipated stage of adulthood.

They may discuss preferred units, professional opportunities or family traditions years before enlistment.

Others develop reservations about military life or question whether they wish to participate.

The expectations surrounding service can create social pressure.

Young people may feel that particular assignments are associated with prestige or that military participation influences how they are perceived by their peers.

Those who are exempt or choose alternative forms of service may experience these expectations differently.

The social importance attached to the military can therefore shape identity before a person ever wears a uniform.

This is particularly significant in a society where military service is connected to professional networks, public recognition and the transition into adult life.

### Partners and the Burden of Separation

Military service can place considerable pressure on romantic relationships and marriages.

During compulsory service, young couples may struggle to maintain regular contact while adapting to different schedules and responsibilities.

One partner may be living on a military base while the other continues education or employment.

Opportunities to spend time together can depend on leave arrangements and operational demands.

For reservists, the situation may be even more complicated.

A person who has already established a household or family may suddenly be required to return to military duty.

The partner who remains at home may assume additional responsibilities involving childcare, employment, finances and household management.

These changes can occur with little warning.

During prolonged deployments, the practical burden may become substantial.

A parent may need to manage school schedules, medical appointments, household repairs and emotional support for children while maintaining their own professional responsibilities.

Even when extended family or community networks provide assistance, the absence of a partner can create exhaustion and uncertainty.

The returning reservist may also face difficulties.

Family routines may have changed.

Responsibilities may have been redistributed.

Both partners may need time to adjust to living together again.

The emotional consequences of military service therefore extend beyond the period of deployment itself.

### Children Waiting for a Parent to Return

For children, the absence of a parent during military service can be difficult to understand.

Young children may not fully comprehend why a parent has left home or why communication is limited.

Older children may understand more about the security situation but experience increased anxiety because of that knowledge.

The emotional response depends on age, family circumstances, the length of separation and the information available to the child.

Some children become more dependent on the parent who remains at home.

Others may express frustration, sadness or concern through changes in behavior.

During periods of heightened conflict, news reports and conversations among adults can intensify uncertainty.

Children may hear about military casualties without having the emotional resources to understand the risks accurately.

Families must often decide how much information to share.

Providing reassurance without making promises that cannot be guaranteed can be particularly difficult.

Schools, community organizations and mental health professionals may play important roles in supporting children affected by parental deployment.

However, the needs of families vary.

Not every child experiences prolonged separation in the same way, and not every family requires professional intervention.

What matters is recognizing that children can be affected by military obligations even though they have no role in the decisions that produce them.

### The Emotional Weight of Uncertainty

One of the most difficult aspects of military service for families is uncertainty.

A soldier may be stationed in an area where the security situation changes rapidly.

Communication may be interrupted.

Operational restrictions may prevent personnel from sharing details about their assignments.

Families may follow news reports while knowing that the information available to the public is incomplete.

This can create periods of intense anxiety.

A delay in receiving a message may be interpreted as a sign that something has happened.

Reports of casualties may lead families to search for information before official notifications are issued.

During major military operations, the emotional pressure can become particularly severe.

For some families, uncertainty lasts hours or days.

For others, it continues through extended deployments.

The psychological burden is not necessarily proportional to the actual level of danger.

Even when a soldier is relatively safe, limited communication and incomplete information can create distress.

This is one reason why family support and clear communication procedures are important components of military welfare.

The emotional wellbeing of service members cannot be considered entirely separate from the wellbeing of those waiting for them.

### October 7 and the Families Who Lost Contact

The Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023, exposed Israeli families to an extraordinary combination of violence, uncertainty and loss.

As attackers entered Israeli communities and military installations near Gaza, families attempted to contact relatives who were living, working or serving in the affected areas.

Some received messages describing attacks, injuries or attempts to find shelter.

Others lost contact entirely.

In the hours and days that followed, families searched for information about missing relatives.

The uncertainty was particularly devastating because the circumstances of disappearance were often unclear.

A missing person might have been killed, injured, trapped or abducted.

For families of soldiers stationed near Gaza, questions also emerged about military preparedness and the protection provided to personnel.

The attacks on military bases, including Nahal Oz, resulted in the deaths and abductions of service members.

The experiences of their families became part of the wider national trauma.

October 7 also demonstrated that the distinction between civilian and military suffering could collapse during a large-scale attack.

Families of soldiers and families of civilians faced different circumstances, but many shared the experience of waiting for reliable information about loved ones.

For those whose relatives were taken hostage, the uncertainty continued long after the initial attack.

### The Families of Hostages

The hostage crisis that followed October 7 created a distinct form of prolonged family suffering.

People abducted during the Hamas-led attacks included civilians and military personnel.

Their relatives faced uncertainty about their physical condition, location and treatment.

For families of abducted soldiers, the situation raised additional questions concerning military responsibility, negotiations and the state's obligations toward personnel captured during service.

Hostage families organized campaigns, public demonstrations and international appeals seeking the return of their relatives.

Their political positions and views about the government's strategy were not always identical.

Some emphasized the urgency of negotiated agreements.

Others expressed different views about military pressure, security and the terms of possible arrangements.

The experiences of hostage families should not be reduced to a single political position.

Their central concern was the fate of their loved ones.

Prolonged uncertainty can create a particular psychological burden because families may be unable to establish what has happened or begin a conventional process of grieving.

This experience is sometimes described in psychological literature as *ambiguous loss*.

The term refers to circumstances in which a person is physically absent but remains psychologically present, or where uncertainty prevents a clear understanding of the loss.

For hostage families, ordinary family life can become organized around the search for information and the hope of return.

The consequences may continue even after a hostage is released or a death is confirmed.

### When Military Service Ends in Loss

The death of a soldier has consequences that extend far beyond official casualty figures.

For a family, it may mean the loss of a child, partner, parent or sibling.

For friends and fellow soldiers, it may mean the death of someone with whom they shared years of personal experience.

Military funerals and commemorations can provide public recognition of service and sacrifice.

In Israel, remembrance of fallen soldiers occupies an important place in national ceremonies and collective memory.

Yom HaZikaron, Israel's Memorial Day for fallen soldiers and victims of hostile acts, is observed through ceremonies, moments of silence and public commemorations.

For many families, these events provide an opportunity to remember loved ones within a wider community.

However, public recognition does not eliminate private grief.

The experience of bereavement varies according to personal circumstances, family relationships, religious beliefs and the nature of the death.

Some families find comfort in national ceremonies.

Others may experience complicated feelings about the military decisions or political circumstances surrounding their loss.

Families may also seek answers about the events that led to a death.

Questions about operational planning, equipment, command decisions or medical assistance can become part of the grieving process.

Accountability and remembrance are not mutually exclusive.

A family can honor a loved one's service while demanding an investigation into the circumstances of their death.

### Injury and the Long Road to Recovery

Not every soldier returns from service physically unharmed.

Military operations and training can result in injuries ranging from temporary medical conditions to permanent disabilities.

Some injuries require extended hospitalization, rehabilitation or lifelong medical care.

Others may affect mobility, employment and everyday independence.

For injured soldiers, recovery can involve adapting to changes in physical ability and personal expectations.

A young person who entered the military in good health may face an uncertain future.

Family members often become an essential part of the rehabilitation process.

Partners may assume caregiving responsibilities.

Parents may help with medical appointments and practical support.

Households may need to adapt living arrangements or financial plans.

Israel has institutions and rehabilitation programs intended to support disabled veterans and eligible service members.

The Ministry of Defense's Rehabilitation Department plays a central role in providing services under the applicable legal framework.

Nevertheless, access to assistance, the recognition of disabilities and the adequacy of long-term support have been subjects of public discussion.

Rehabilitation is not simply a medical process.

It may also involve psychological adjustment, social relationships, education and employment.

For some injured personnel, recovery is a lengthy and uneven experience.

Their families may undergo significant changes alongside them.

### Psychological Trauma and Military Service

The psychological consequences of military service can be less visible than physical injuries.

Some soldiers are exposed to combat, death, serious injury or other potentially traumatic events.

Others may experience prolonged stress, fear or moral conflict associated with their duties.

Not everyone exposed to a traumatic event develops a mental health disorder.

Responses vary according to the circumstances, individual resilience, previous experiences and access to support.

However, some service members may experience persistent psychological difficulties after returning home.

These can include intrusive memories, disturbed sleep, heightened alertness, anxiety, depression or difficulty reconnecting with ordinary routines.

Post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD, is one possible clinical outcome following exposure to trauma, but it should not be used as a general label for every veteran who experiences distress.

A diagnosis requires appropriate professional assessment.

The emotional effects of military service may also include grief, guilt, anger or confusion.

Some individuals struggle with memories of events they witnessed.

Others experience distress connected to actions they took, decisions they were unable to influence or situations in which they felt powerless.

These experiences require careful discussion.

They should not be sensationalized or treated as evidence that all soldiers are psychologically damaged.

At the same time, minimizing the need for mental health support can prevent individuals from seeking appropriate care.

### Moral Injury and Difficult Questions After Service

Another concept relevant to military experience is *moral injury*.

The term is used to describe psychological, emotional or spiritual distress that can arise when individuals participate in, witness or fail to prevent events that conflict with deeply held moral beliefs.

Moral injury is not identical to PTSD, although the experiences can overlap.

A soldier may struggle with decisions made during combat, the death of civilians, the loss of fellow soldiers or the perceived failure of leaders.

These concerns may involve guilt, shame, anger or a loss of trust.

Moral injury is not proof that a particular action was unlawful.

Nor does the existence of a lawful military order automatically prevent an individual from experiencing moral distress.

The concept concerns how people interpret events in relation to their own values.

For Israeli soldiers, the moral questions surrounding service may be especially complex because military operations occur within a prolonged conflict involving civilians, contested territory and competing national narratives.

Some veterans publicly discuss their experiences.

Others prefer not to speak about them.

Families may find it difficult to understand why a returning soldier has changed or why certain subjects remain painful.

Supporting individuals who experience moral distress requires listening without automatically assigning a diagnosis or presuming what occurred.

### The Impact on Relationships After Deployment

Returning from military service can be difficult even when a soldier has not experienced a major injury or diagnosed psychological condition.

During deployment, personnel may become accustomed to highly structured routines and close dependence on fellow soldiers.

Civilian life operates differently.

Family members may expect immediate participation in household responsibilities.

Partners may hope to resume familiar routines.

Children may want attention from a parent they have missed.

The returning soldier may need time to adjust.

Some people experience irritability, fatigue or difficulty discussing their experiences.

Others may feel disconnected from civilian concerns after spending time in an environment dominated by security responsibilities.

The family members who remained at home have also changed.

They may have developed new routines or taken on additional responsibilities.

Reintegration therefore requires adjustment from everyone involved.

For some families, the transition strengthens relationships.

For others, it reveals tensions that require additional support.

Communication, realistic expectations and access to professional assistance when needed can help families navigate the process.

The important point is that returning home is not always the same as returning to the life that existed before deployment.

### The Particular Burden on Women and Caregivers

Military mobilization can reinforce existing inequalities in the distribution of unpaid care.

When a reservist leaves home, a partner or family member may become responsible for additional childcare, household management and emotional support.

In many households, these responsibilities fall disproportionately on women.

The consequences can affect employment, professional advancement and financial independence.

A parent who must manage family responsibilities alone may reduce working hours or postpone career opportunities.

Single-parent households may face particular difficulties.

Women who serve as soldiers or reservists may encounter a different combination of challenges.

They may be required to balance military obligations with caregiving responsibilities and social expectations concerning family life.

The experiences of same-sex couples, extended families and households with different caregiving arrangements also deserve recognition.

There is no single model of the military family.

Understanding the social cost of service requires examining who performs the work that allows military personnel to leave civilian life.

This work may be unpaid, largely invisible and essential to the functioning of the reserve system.

### Families Who Question the Decisions of Leaders

Military service can create complicated relationships between families and state institutions.

Many relatives of soldiers support the military while disagreeing with government policies or particular operational decisions.

Others question the adequacy of military planning, equipment or protection.

Families of fallen or injured soldiers may seek investigations into the circumstances of particular incidents.

After October 7, public inquiries and military investigations raised questions about intelligence failures, defensive preparedness and command decisions.

For some families, these questions became deeply personal.

They wanted to understand whether deaths or injuries might have been prevented.

The demand for accountability should not automatically be interpreted as opposition to the military.

Families may believe strongly in national defense while also expecting institutions to acknowledge mistakes.

Likewise, support for military personnel does not require agreement with every decision made by political leaders.

In a democratic society, families affected by military service have legitimate reasons to participate in public debate.

Their experiences can provide important perspectives on the consequences of security policy.

However, no single family can be assumed to represent all soldiers or all bereaved relatives.

Their views may differ substantially.

### Remembering Soldiers Without Forgetting Civilians

The human cost of military service cannot be examined in isolation from the broader consequences of war.

Israeli soldiers and their families may experience loss, injury and psychological distress.

Palestinian civilians and families have also experienced extensive death, displacement, injury and destruction during the conflict.

These experiences occur within different legal and political circumstances, but they all involve human lives.

Recognizing the suffering of one population does not require minimizing the suffering of another.

Nor does acknowledging personal grief determine whether particular military operations were lawful or justified.

Those questions require examination of evidence, applicable law and the responsibilities of the parties involved.

For a journalism platform seeking to understand Israeli society, the distinction is important.

The experiences of soldiers' families help explain how military service shapes Israeli public life.

The experiences of Palestinian families are equally necessary to understanding the human consequences of the conflict.

A responsible account should not use suffering as a competition between communities.

It should document experiences accurately while preserving the ability to examine political decisions and military conduct critically.

### The Generational Consequences of War

Military service can influence families across generations.

Parents may carry memories of earlier wars.

Children may grow up hearing stories of relatives who served or were killed.

Grandparents may recognize patterns of fear and uncertainty from their own experiences.

These memories can shape attitudes toward security, political leadership and the possibility of peace.

For some families, military service strengthens a sense of continuity and shared responsibility.

For others, repeated exposure to conflict creates exhaustion or a desire for change.

Young people may inherit expectations about service before they have developed their own political views.

They may also inherit grief associated with family members they never knew.

The effects of war are therefore not limited to those who directly participate in military operations.

They can influence family relationships, public memory and political identity over many years.

This is one reason why military service remains such a powerful subject in Israeli society.

It is connected not only to present security requirements but also to the memories and expectations of earlier generations.

### What Support Do Military Families Need?

The needs of military families differ according to their circumstances.

Some require practical assistance during deployments, including childcare, financial support or help with household responsibilities.

Others may benefit from counseling, family services or professional mental health care.

Bereaved families may need long-term support that continues well beyond the immediate period following a death.

Injured soldiers and their relatives may require rehabilitation services, accessible housing or assistance returning to employment.

Children affected by prolonged parental absence may benefit from stable routines and age-appropriate explanations.

Community organizations, public institutions, military welfare programs and charitable initiatives can all play roles in providing assistance.

However, effective support requires more than the existence of programs.

Families must be able to access services without unnecessary obstacles.

Assistance should be responsive to different cultural backgrounds, family structures and personal circumstances.

It should also recognize that some needs emerge months or years after military service ends.

The consequences of war do not always follow an administrative timetable.

### The Human Cost Behind National Security

Military service is often discussed as a duty owed to the state.

But the people who undertake that duty are not separate from civilian society.

They are children, parents, partners, friends, students and employees.

Their military responsibilities affect people who may never wear a uniform.

For some families, service creates pride, belonging and lasting relationships.

For others, it brings prolonged uncertainty, financial pressure, injury or grief.

Many experience a combination of these realities.

The events of October 7 and the subsequent war made the personal consequences of military service especially visible.

Families waited for news.

Reservists left civilian lives behind.

Children experienced separation from parents.

Some households welcomed loved ones home.

Others faced injuries, captivity or permanent loss.

These experiences are central to understanding the place of the military in Israeli society.

They also reveal why debates about military obligations cannot be reduced to recruitment targets, legal exemptions or operational requirements.

Every decision concerning military service has consequences for individuals and families.

The next chapter examines how October 7 changed Israeli society's relationship with the armed forces, reshaped public trust and raised difficult questions about security, responsibility and the future of military service.

![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/25/d6/25d63f5d-099c-45e8-ad1b-346bc1c986ba/content/images/2026/10/SoI-War_23-10-30_IDF_02-10.jpg)

Israeli soldiers during military operations in Gaza on October 30, 2023\. The aftermath of the October 7 attacks placed extraordinary demands on Israel's armed forces and reshaped public discussions about military service. Photo: IDF Spokesperson's Unit / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0.

## Chapter 9 — October 7 and the Changing Meaning of Military Service

### The Day That Changed Israel's Relationship with Its Military

For generations, the Israel Defense Forces occupied a central place in Israeli national identity.

The military was not simply an institution responsible for defending the country's borders. For many Israelis, it represented a fundamental promise: that the state possessed the ability and determination to protect its citizens.

That promise was profoundly shaken on October 7, 2023.

During the early morning hours, Hamas-led armed groups launched a coordinated assault from the Gaza Strip into southern Israel.

The attackers breached border defenses, assaulted military installations and entered civilian communities.

Approximately 1,200 people were killed in Israel, according to Israeli authorities, including civilians and members of the security forces. Around 250 people were abducted and taken into Gaza.

The attacks included deliberate violence against civilians and hostage-taking, acts prohibited under international humanitarian law.

The assault exposed major weaknesses in Israel's intelligence assessments, border defenses, operational preparedness and military response.

For many Israelis, the shock extended beyond the scale of the violence.

It challenged assumptions about the ability of the country's military and intelligence institutions to recognize threats and respond effectively.

The consequences reached deeply into Israeli society.

Families questioned whether their children were adequately protected during military service.

Reservists were mobilized on an extraordinary scale.

Young recruits entered the armed forces during a period of prolonged conflict.

Military commanders faced demands for explanations and accountability.

And citizens began reassessing the relationship between compulsory service, public trust and the responsibilities of the state.

October 7 did not end Israel's tradition of military service.

But it changed the questions many Israelis asked about that service.

### The Security Assumptions Before the Attack

Before October 7, Israel had invested heavily in border surveillance, intelligence collection, physical barriers and military technology.

The Gaza border was protected by a combination of fencing, sensors, surveillance systems, observation posts and military units.

These measures were intended to detect infiltration attempts and provide sufficient warning for security forces to respond.

Israeli military and political leaders also operated within strategic assumptions about Hamas.

For years, elements of Israel's security establishment assessed that Hamas could be deterred or contained through a combination of military pressure, border restrictions and economic arrangements.

These assumptions were not universally shared.

Warnings and concerns existed within the intelligence and security systems.

However, the October 7 attack demonstrated that the overall assessment of Hamas's intentions and capabilities had been seriously flawed.

The attackers exploited vulnerabilities in the defensive system and overwhelmed several military positions.

Surveillance equipment and communications infrastructure were attacked.

Military units were confronted with simultaneous incidents across multiple locations.

The scale and coordination of the assault contributed to delays in establishing an effective response.

For the Israeli public, the failure was particularly disturbing because the country had long placed considerable confidence in its technological and intelligence capabilities.

The question was no longer whether Israel possessed advanced security systems.

It was why those systems had failed to prevent or adequately contain the attack.

### The Soldiers Who Were Not Prepared for What Came

The events of October 7 also raised questions about the experiences of soldiers stationed near Gaza.

Many were young conscripts performing routine military assignments.

Some worked in surveillance, communications, administration or support positions.

Others belonged to combat units responsible for border security.

When the attacks began, personnel at several military installations faced rapidly escalating violence.

Some bases were overrun.

Soldiers were killed, wounded or abducted.

Others fought to defend their positions or assist nearby communities.

The experiences of these service members revealed the difference between formal military responsibility and actual preparedness for a large-scale assault.

A soldier may be trained to perform a specific role without being equipped to respond independently to a coordinated attack involving multiple armed groups.

Questions subsequently emerged about the availability of weapons, defensive positions, communications, reinforcements and emergency procedures at particular installations.

These questions require examination of the circumstances at each location.

The failures of October 7 should not be reduced to the actions of individual junior soldiers.

Military preparedness is shaped by decisions made at multiple levels, including intelligence assessment, operational planning, deployment and command.

Understanding the experience of the soldiers requires examining the institutions responsible for preparing and protecting them.

### The Warnings from the Gaza Border

One of the most troubling aspects of the period before October 7 concerned reports from female surveillance soldiers stationed along the Gaza border.

These soldiers monitored activity through observation systems and reported developments they considered significant.

Some described unusual exercises, movements and patterns that appeared consistent with preparations for an attack.

Subsequent reporting and military investigations raised serious questions about how these observations were evaluated and communicated.

The broader intelligence picture also included information about Hamas planning and capabilities that was not adequately integrated into operational assessments.

The central issue was not simply whether individual warnings existed.

It was how military institutions interpreted information that challenged established assumptions.

For the families of soldiers killed or abducted during the attack, these questions became deeply personal.

They wanted to know whether earlier reports had been taken seriously and whether their relatives had been placed at unnecessary risk.

The experiences of the surveillance soldiers also prompted debate about military hierarchy.

Could lower-ranking personnel challenge the assessments of senior officers?

Were reports from young soldiers given sufficient attention?

Did institutional culture discourage the escalation of concerns?

These questions have implications far beyond one military installation.

A security organization depends on its ability to recognize when established assumptions are wrong.

That requires systems in which relevant information can reach decision-makers regardless of the rank or status of the person reporting it.

### The First Hours: Confusion and Individual Initiative

During the first hours of October 7, Israeli security forces faced multiple simultaneous attacks.

The scale of the assault created severe challenges for command, communication and coordination.

In some locations, soldiers and police officers fought attackers before substantial reinforcements arrived.

Off-duty security personnel and other individuals also became involved in efforts to protect civilians.

Accounts of the fighting describe acts of courage alongside serious failures of organization and preparedness.

These realities are not mutually exclusive.

Individual soldiers may respond bravely during a crisis while the wider institution fails to provide effective leadership or support.

The distinction matters because public discussions of military disasters can become polarized.

One narrative may emphasize heroism and sacrifice.

Another may focus on institutional failure.

A responsible examination must consider both.

The actions of individual personnel do not erase failures in planning or command.

Likewise, failures at senior levels do not diminish the efforts of those who attempted to protect civilians under extremely dangerous circumstances.

For Israeli society, this distinction became important in the months following the attacks.

The military could remain a source of personal pride while also becoming the subject of profound public criticism.

### The Mobilization of a Nation

In the aftermath of October 7, Israel launched an extensive emergency mobilization.

Approximately 300,000 reservists were initially called up, according to Israeli military announcements.

The mobilization affected workplaces, universities, businesses and households across the country.

Some reservists returned from abroad.

Others interrupted careers, education or family commitments.

For many, the decision to report was shaped by the immediate security crisis.

The mobilization also included people who had previously participated in protests against government policies.

Earlier in 2023, disagreements over proposed judicial changes had generated public controversy involving some reservists.

Following the attacks, many individuals across political divisions participated in the military response.

This demonstrated that disagreement with the government did not necessarily mean an unwillingness to respond to an immediate national security emergency.

However, the mobilization did not eliminate political differences.

As the war continued, questions about strategy, leadership and the fate of hostages generated renewed debate.

The reserve system became both a symbol of collective responsibility and a reminder of the personal costs of prolonged military operations.

### The War in Gaza and the Burden of Service

Israel's military campaign in Gaza following October 7 created extensive operational demands.

Israeli authorities stated that the campaign aimed to dismantle Hamas's military capabilities, prevent future attacks and secure the release of hostages.

The military operations involved ground forces, air operations, intelligence units, logistics personnel and reservists.

The conflict also caused devastating consequences for Palestinian civilians.

Large numbers of Palestinians were killed or injured, and extensive displacement and destruction affected homes, hospitals, schools and essential infrastructure.

Humanitarian organizations repeatedly warned about severe conditions facing civilians.

The conduct of the war generated international legal scrutiny, including proceedings before the International Court of Justice and investigations involving the International Criminal Court.

These proceedings involve distinct legal questions and should not be confused with one another.

The International Court of Justice addresses disputes concerning the responsibilities of states.

The International Criminal Court concerns individual criminal responsibility for crimes within its jurisdiction.

For Israeli soldiers, the prolonged conflict created difficult operational and personal circumstances.

Some served in repeated deployments.

Others experienced injury, bereavement or psychological distress.

Military personnel were required to operate in densely populated areas where civilian protection obligations were particularly significant.

International humanitarian law requires parties to armed conflicts to distinguish between civilians and combatants and to comply with applicable rules concerning proportionality and precautions in attack.

These obligations remain in force regardless of the military objectives being pursued.

For Israeli society, the war intensified debate about the relationship between military necessity, civilian harm, international law and the responsibilities of political and military leadership.

### A Crisis of Public Trust

The October 7 attacks triggered a major crisis of confidence in Israel's security institutions.

For many citizens, the most difficult question was how such a large-scale attack could occur despite years of investment in intelligence and border defenses.

Public criticism focused on the political leadership, senior military commanders and intelligence agencies.

Questions emerged about whether warnings had been ignored, whether defensive forces had been adequately deployed and whether decision-makers had relied too heavily on assumptions about Hamas.

The military's response to these questions became an important test of institutional credibility.

Acknowledging failure is difficult for any national security organization.

It can be especially challenging in a society where the armed forces occupy such a prominent place in public life.

Yet public confidence cannot be restored solely through statements emphasizing military strength.

It also depends on credible investigations, transparency where security considerations permit and accountability for decisions that contributed to failure.

For some Israelis, trust in individual soldiers remained strong even as confidence in senior leadership declined.

Others expressed broader concerns about military strategy and the relationship between the armed forces and elected officials.

These differences demonstrate that public trust is not a single, uniform attitude.

Citizens may respect the service of military personnel while questioning the institutions responsible for directing them.

### The Military Investigations

Following October 7, the IDF conducted internal investigations into the failures surrounding the attacks.

These examinations addressed intelligence assessments, defensive planning, operational readiness and the response of military units during the assault.

Findings released during 2025 acknowledged serious failures in the military's preparedness and response.

Investigations also examined particular communities and military installations, where the circumstances of the attacks differed.

The inquiries contributed to a clearer understanding of how multiple weaknesses combined to produce the disaster.

However, internal military investigations have limitations.

They may identify operational mistakes and institutional weaknesses, but they do not necessarily resolve questions about political responsibility or decisions made outside the military chain of command.

This distinction became central to public debate.

Some Israelis called for an independent state commission of inquiry with authority to examine the responsibilities of political and military leaders.

Others supported different investigative arrangements or disagreed about the appropriate timing and scope.

The question of accountability therefore extended beyond the IDF itself.

It concerned how a democratic state investigates failures involving institutions responsible for national security.

For families of those killed or abducted, the credibility of these processes remained particularly important.

### Accountability Is Not the Same as Blame

The demand for accountability after October 7 created difficult questions about individual and institutional responsibility.

Military operations involve decisions made across multiple levels.

Intelligence analysts interpret information.

Commanders assess threats and allocate resources.

Senior officers establish operational priorities.

Political leaders determine broader security policy.

When a major failure occurs, responsibility may be distributed across several institutions.

Identifying that responsibility requires evidence.

It also requires distinguishing between errors of judgment, failures to follow established procedures, systemic weaknesses and possible misconduct.

Not every mistaken assessment constitutes a criminal offense.

Not every operational failure can be attributed to one individual.

However, the complexity of military decision-making should not become a reason to avoid scrutiny.

A credible investigation must examine what information was available, how decisions were made and whether reasonable actions could have reduced the consequences.

Accountability can involve changes in leadership, disciplinary measures, institutional reform or legal proceedings, depending on the findings.

Its purpose should be more than assigning blame.

It should help prevent similar failures and strengthen public confidence in the institutions responsible for national security.

### A New Generation Entering the Military

The consequences of October 7 also affected young Israelis approaching compulsory military service.

For many, enlistment after the attacks took place in a different atmosphere from that experienced by previous generations.

The country was engaged in a prolonged conflict.

Public discussion focused on military losses, hostages, reserve mobilization and the failures of national security institutions.

Young recruits entered an armed force facing intense operational demands and public scrutiny.

Some may have felt a stronger sense of urgency about contributing to national defense.

Others may have experienced greater anxiety about the risks of service.

Families preparing for enlistment confronted questions about military assignments, training and the protection of young personnel.

The experiences of soldiers killed at border installations also raised concerns about whether recruits were adequately prepared for the threats they might encounter.

These developments may influence how younger generations understand military service.

For some, it remains a source of national belonging.

For others, it is increasingly connected to questions about leadership, accountability and the human cost of prolonged conflict.

There is no single response shared by all young Israelis.

Their attitudes differ according to personal experience, family background, political beliefs and community identity.

### Reservists and the Limits of Repeated Mobilization

The prolonged demands placed on reservists after October 7 raised questions about the sustainability of Israel's military service model.

Reserve duty is designed to allow trained personnel to return temporarily to military responsibilities while spending most of their lives in civilian society.

Extended and repeated deployments place that balance under pressure.

Reservists may be required to interrupt employment, education and family life for substantial periods.

Their partners may assume additional responsibilities.

Children may experience repeated separations.

Employers may struggle to maintain operations without experienced staff.

The consequences can accumulate over time.

A single deployment may be manageable for a family or business.

Repeated deployments can create more serious financial, emotional and practical difficulties.

These pressures intensified debate about the distribution of military obligations across Israeli society.

In particular, the question of ultra-Orthodox conscription became more urgent as the military sought additional personnel.

For many reservists, the issue was no longer simply whether different exemptions were legally justified.

It was whether the existing system could continue placing such extensive demands on a relatively limited section of the population.

### Military Service and Political Disagreement

The war after October 7 also demonstrated that military service does not require agreement with every government policy.

Israeli soldiers and reservists hold different political views.

Some support the government's military strategy.

Others criticize particular decisions, demand greater accountability or advocate negotiated agreements.

Families of hostages and fallen soldiers have also expressed different positions concerning the continuation of military operations and the priorities of political leaders.

These disagreements are part of a wider democratic debate.

However, military personnel operate under legal and professional obligations that differ from those of civilians.

The armed forces are expected to function under civilian authority and within the law.

Questions about the expression of political opinions, refusal to serve and obedience to military orders therefore require careful distinctions.

A soldier's personal political beliefs do not automatically determine the legality of military actions.

Likewise, criticism of government policy does not necessarily imply opposition to national defense.

The challenge for democratic institutions is to maintain lawful military command while protecting legitimate public debate and ensuring accountability.

### The Meaning of Sacrifice After October 7

Military service has long been associated in Israel with sacrifice and collective responsibility.

After October 7, those concepts acquired renewed significance.

Families mourned soldiers and civilians killed during the attacks.

Reservists spent extended periods away from home.

Wounded personnel faced rehabilitation.

Hostage families endured prolonged uncertainty.

At the same time, the war in Gaza caused immense suffering among Palestinian civilians, raising urgent questions about the human consequences of military operations.

These realities complicated public discussions about sacrifice.

The suffering of Israeli soldiers and their families is real.

So is the suffering of Palestinian civilians and families.

Recognizing both does not mean treating every military or political action as morally or legally equivalent.

It means acknowledging that the consequences of war extend beyond national narratives.

For a society in which military service is closely connected to citizenship, the challenge is to honor personal sacrifice without allowing it to prevent critical examination of military decisions.

Respect for soldiers and accountability for institutions should not be treated as opposing principles.

### Can Trust Be Rebuilt?

Restoring public confidence after a major security failure is a long-term process.

It requires more than military reforms or changes in leadership.

Citizens need credible explanations of what happened.

Families need answers about the circumstances in which loved ones were killed or injured.

Military personnel need confidence that their training, equipment and command structures are adequate.

Political leaders must demonstrate that security decisions are subject to responsible oversight.

The armed forces must also show that lessons identified through investigations are translated into practical changes.

These may involve intelligence procedures, communication systems, defensive planning, training and operational readiness.

However, institutional reform alone cannot resolve every consequence of October 7.

The attacks also affected public perceptions of security, national identity and the possibility of future coexistence.

Different communities have drawn different conclusions from the events.

Some have called for stronger military deterrence.

Others have emphasized political accountability, diplomatic solutions or the need to reconsider long-term security assumptions.

The future relationship between Israeli society and the IDF will be influenced by how these disagreements develop.

### A Military Institution Under New Scrutiny

October 7 exposed the limits of a security system in which technological sophistication and military strength had become central sources of confidence.

The attacks demonstrated that advanced defenses cannot compensate for failures in intelligence interpretation, preparedness or command.

They also showed the importance of listening to personnel at every level of a military organization.

Young soldiers may possess information that senior officers need to hear.

Reservists may identify weaknesses in training or readiness.

Families may raise legitimate concerns about the protection of service members.

Investigations may reveal failures that institutions would prefer not to acknowledge.

A military organization capable of learning must be willing to examine these perspectives.

That does not eliminate the need for operational secrecy or disciplined command.

It does require an institutional culture in which relevant concerns can be raised and assessed seriously.

The credibility of the IDF after October 7 will depend partly on whether the lessons of the attacks lead to lasting changes.

### The Changing Meaning of Military Service

Before October 7, military service was already a central feature of life for many Israelis.

It shaped identity, friendships, employment opportunities and the relationship between citizens and the state.

The attacks and subsequent war did not erase those connections.

Instead, they placed them under greater pressure.

Military service became associated with renewed demands for national defense, but also with questions about preparedness and leadership.

Reserve duty demonstrated collective mobilization while exposing the economic and emotional costs of prolonged service.

The experiences of young soldiers revealed courage and commitment, but also the consequences of institutional failures.

Public debate about conscription intensified as questions about fairness became increasingly difficult to avoid.

For some Israelis, the events reinforced the belief that a strong military is essential to national survival.

For others, they demonstrated that military strength must be accompanied by greater accountability, political responsibility and a reassessment of security policy.

Many hold elements of both views.

The meaning of military service is therefore not fixed.

It evolves alongside the society that sustains it.

### Conclusion: From Confidence to Questions

October 7, 2023, marked a turning point in Israel's relationship with its armed forces.

The attacks shattered assumptions about the effectiveness of border defenses and the ability of security institutions to anticipate major threats.

They exposed young soldiers and civilians to devastating violence.

They triggered an extraordinary mobilization and a prolonged war whose consequences extended across Israeli and Palestinian society.

They also intensified demands for investigations, accountability and changes to military policy.

For many Israelis, the IDF remains an essential institution responsible for national defense.

But the events of October 7 demonstrated that public confidence cannot rest solely on military reputation, technology or historical achievements.

It must also depend on competence, lawful conduct, transparency and the willingness to acknowledge failure.

The experience has reshaped questions about what citizens owe the state and what the state owes those it requires to serve.

Military service may involve sacrifice.

But sacrifice creates obligations for political and military leaders as well.

Those obligations include preparing personnel adequately, protecting them where possible, making responsible decisions and investigating failures honestly.

The next chapter examines another difficult dimension of military service in Israel: the individuals who refuse to serve, challenge particular military assignments or question the moral responsibilities of soldiers within a democratic society.

## Chapter 10 — Refusal, Conscientious Objection and Public Debate

### When Military Duty Conflicts with Personal Conviction

In a country where military service is deeply connected to citizenship, national security and collective identity, refusing to serve can carry consequences that extend far beyond the individual.

For many Israelis, joining the armed forces is an expected stage of adulthood.

Military service may represent responsibility, family tradition and participation in the defense of the state.

But not every citizen understands that obligation in the same way.

Some oppose military service because of deeply held moral or religious convictions.

Others object to particular military operations, the occupation of Palestinian territories or government policies.

Some reservists have used the threat of withdrawing from voluntary service to protest political decisions.

Others distinguish between their willingness to defend Israel and their unwillingness to participate in specific assignments.

These positions are not identical.

Refusing all military service on grounds of conscience is different from opposing a particular deployment.

Publicly criticizing government policy is different from disobeying a lawful military order.

And refusing to carry out a manifestly unlawful order is fundamentally different from refusing service because of political disagreement.

Understanding these distinctions is essential to examining the relationship between military obligations and democratic rights.

The debate raises a difficult question: what happens when the responsibilities demanded by the state conflict with an individual's understanding of morality, legality or citizenship?

### The Meaning of Conscientious Objection

Conscientious objection refers to a refusal to participate in military service because of deeply held moral, ethical or religious convictions.

The reasons may differ considerably.

Some individuals oppose all forms of warfare.

Others believe that participating in military institutions is incompatible with their religious beliefs.

Some reject the use of armed force under any circumstances.

Others object to particular conflicts or military policies.

These distinctions are important because legal systems do not necessarily treat every form of objection in the same way.

International human rights bodies have recognized conscientious objection to military service as connected to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.

The United Nations Human Rights Committee has interpreted Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights as providing protection relevant to conscientious objection.

However, the precise recognition and implementation of that right vary between countries.

In Israel, conscientious objection exists within a system where military service is compulsory for many citizens.

The state has established limited procedures through which certain individuals may seek exemption on grounds of conscience.

Yet the recognition of objections has historically been restrictive, particularly when a refusal concerns specific military policies rather than opposition to military service in principle.

This distinction has been central to legal disputes involving Israeli conscientious objectors.

### How Israeli Law Approaches Refusal

Israel's Defense Service Law establishes the legal framework for compulsory military service and provides for exemptions and deferments under specified circumstances.

The law also allows authorities to consider certain requests for exemption based on conscience.

In practice, the military has used procedures involving review committees to examine some applications.

Applicants may be questioned about the consistency, sincerity and scope of their beliefs.

A person who opposes all military activity may be treated differently from someone who is willing to serve in some circumstances but refuses a particular operation.

Israeli courts have generally recognized the state's substantial interest in maintaining an effective system of compulsory military service.

They have also examined the relationship between military obligations and individual freedom of conscience.

One important distinction in Israeli legal practice has been between general conscientious objection and selective objection.

General objection concerns opposition to military service or violence as a matter of principle.

Selective objection concerns refusal to participate in particular operations, assignments or policies.

The latter has often received less legal protection.

Authorities have argued that allowing soldiers to decide individually which military operations they will support could undermine discipline and the ability of the armed forces to function.

Critics respond that a democratic society should provide meaningful protection for individuals whose participation would violate fundamental moral convictions.

The tension remains unresolved at the broader ethical level, even where particular legal questions have been addressed by courts.

### The Refuseniks: A History of Military Dissent

Israel has a long history of public debate involving soldiers and reservists who refuse particular forms of military service.

The term *refusenik* has sometimes been used to describe Israeli individuals who decline military duties on political or moral grounds.

However, the term has a broader historical meaning and should not be understood as referring exclusively to Israeli military objectors.

One of the most influential movements emerged during the 1982 Lebanon War.

Reservists and other citizens questioned Israel's military intervention in Lebanon and the political decisions behind it.

The organization Yesh Gvul, meaning *There Is a Limit*, became associated with opposition to participation in military operations that its supporters considered unjustified.

Some reservists refused assignments connected to Lebanon and later to the occupied Palestinian territories.

Their actions generated controversy.

Supporters regarded refusal as an expression of moral responsibility.

Opponents argued that soldiers could not substitute their personal political judgments for decisions made through the state's democratic institutions.

The debate revealed a conflict between two principles.

The first was the obligation of military personnel to follow lawful orders.

The second was the belief that individuals remain morally responsible for their actions even when acting under military authority.

This tension would reappear during later conflicts.

### The First and Second Intifadas

The Palestinian uprisings known as the First and Second Intifadas intensified Israeli debate about military service.

The First Intifada began in December 1987.

It involved widespread Palestinian protests, civil resistance, strikes and confrontations with Israeli security forces in the occupied territories.

Israeli soldiers were deployed to maintain control, enforce restrictions and respond to unrest.

The experience led some military personnel to question the moral and political consequences of serving in the occupied territories.

They argued that military operations involving the civilian population raised concerns different from those associated with defending Israel against external armed attacks.

The Second Intifada, which began in 2000, involved extensive violence, including Palestinian attacks against Israeli civilians and Israeli military operations in Palestinian areas.

The period intensified fears and political divisions on both sides.

Some Israeli soldiers and reservists publicly refused assignments in the occupied territories.

Others argued that military operations were necessary to protect civilians from attacks.

The debate reflected fundamentally different interpretations of security and responsibility.

For supporters of selective refusal, participation in certain operations was incompatible with their moral beliefs.

For critics, refusal threatened military cohesion during a period of serious security danger.

The controversy demonstrated that conscientious objection cannot be separated from the political and historical circumstances in which military service occurs.

### The Combatants' Letter of 2002

In January 2002, a group of Israeli reserve combat officers and soldiers published a declaration refusing to continue serving in the occupied Palestinian territories.

The initiative became known as the *Combatants' Letter*.

Its signatories argued that certain military activities contributed to the domination and mistreatment of Palestinians rather than to Israel's legitimate defense.

The letter attracted national and international attention.

Additional reservists subsequently expressed support for the movement.

The initiative was controversial because its participants were not necessarily opposed to military service as a whole.

Many had served for years and continued to identify with Israel's security needs.

Their objection concerned particular assignments and the political conditions under which those assignments took place.

This distinction became central to public debate.

Supporters argued that military experience gave the signatories credibility when discussing the consequences of occupation.

Critics maintained that soldiers could not independently determine which government policies deserved military enforcement.

The episode highlighted the difficult position of individuals who regarded themselves as committed citizens while refusing specific military responsibilities.

### Young Israelis Who Refuse Enlistment

Conscientious objection is not limited to experienced soldiers or reservists.

Some young Israelis refuse military service before enlistment.

These individuals are sometimes called *shministim*, a Hebrew term associated with students in their final year of secondary school who publicly declare opposition to conscription or particular military policies.

Not every young person who avoids military service is a conscientious objector.

Some receive exemptions for medical, religious or other legally recognized reasons.

Others are not subject to compulsory recruitment.

Those who deliberately refuse enlistment on political or moral grounds form a distinct category.

Their motivations vary.

Some identify as pacifists.

Others object to Israel's policies toward Palestinians.

Some question the institution of compulsory military service itself.

Refusal can carry serious consequences.

Individuals may face disciplinary proceedings or imprisonment under military law.

Some have experienced repeated periods of detention after continuing to refuse service.

The precise legal outcome depends on the circumstances and the decisions of military authorities.

For young people, the decision can also affect relationships with family members, friends and their wider communities.

In a society where military service is often treated as a shared responsibility, refusal may be interpreted by others as a rejection of national solidarity.

Supporters of conscientious objectors argue that freedom of conscience should not depend on whether a person's beliefs are popular.

### The Personal Cost of Refusal

Refusing military service may involve more than a legal confrontation with the state.

It can create conflict within families.

Parents who served in the military may struggle to understand a child's decision not to enlist.

Friends preparing for service may view refusal as unfair.

Employers or educational institutions may respond differently depending on the person's circumstances and the opportunities involved.

Some objectors become involved in public campaigns.

Others prefer to keep their decisions private.

Publicly identified conscientious objectors may face criticism, social exclusion or harassment.

They may also receive support from human rights organizations and individuals who share their convictions.

The experience varies considerably.

It would be inaccurate to suggest that every objector is rejected by society or that refusal necessarily prevents a successful civilian career.

Nevertheless, the social importance of military service can make the decision unusually difficult.

For some individuals, the central conflict is not between personal comfort and public duty.

It is between two obligations they consider equally serious: responsibility toward their community and responsibility toward their conscience.

### Military Discipline and Democratic Authority

Military institutions depend on discipline.

Soldiers must be able to act together under demanding conditions.

Orders must be communicated clearly, and personnel must understand their responsibilities.

A military organization in which every individual independently determines which lawful instructions to follow would face serious operational difficulties.

This is one reason governments and military courts generally distinguish between political disagreement and legally recognized grounds for refusing orders.

In a democratic state, the armed forces operate under civilian political authority.

Elected institutions determine national policy within the limits of domestic and international law.

Military commanders are responsible for implementing lawful decisions.

Individual soldiers are not free to replace this structure with their personal political preferences.

However, military discipline does not eliminate personal legal responsibility.

The obligation to follow lawful orders exists alongside the duty not to carry out orders that are manifestly unlawful.

The distinction is essential.

A soldier who refuses an otherwise lawful assignment because of political disagreement occupies a different legal position from a soldier ordered to commit an obvious violation of the law.

The latter situation involves obligations that cannot be dismissed through an appeal to military hierarchy.

### The Duty to Refuse Manifestly Unlawful Orders

One of the most important principles in military law is that following orders does not automatically excuse participation in serious unlawful acts.

International criminal law recognizes that individuals may bear responsibility for crimes committed under military authority.

The legal treatment of superior orders depends on the applicable law and the nature of the offense.

In Israeli legal history, the 1956 Kafr Qasim massacre became a defining case concerning unlawful military orders.

On October 29, 1956, Israeli Border Police personnel killed 49 Arab civilians in Kafr Qasim after the imposition of a curfew that many residents had not been informed about.

The subsequent legal proceedings examined the responsibility of personnel who carried out orders resulting in the killings.

The case became associated with the principle that an order can be so obviously unlawful that a soldier has a duty to refuse it.

Israeli legal discussion has often described this as an order over which a *black flag* of illegality flies.

The principle remains significant because it establishes that military obedience has legal limits.

A soldier cannot assume that an instruction is lawful merely because it comes from a superior.

At the same time, the concept of a manifestly unlawful order should not be confused with any order a soldier personally considers politically objectionable.

The legal distinction requires careful assessment.

### International Humanitarian Law and Individual Responsibility

International humanitarian law regulates the conduct of armed conflict.

It includes rules intended to protect civilians, prisoners of war, the wounded and others who are not participating, or are no longer participating, in hostilities.

Among its central principles are distinction, proportionality and precautions in attack.

Parties to an armed conflict must distinguish between civilians and combatants and between civilian objects and military objectives.

Attacks directed against civilians are prohibited.

An attack against a military objective is also prohibited if the expected incidental civilian harm would be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.

Those planning or conducting attacks must take feasible precautions to reduce civilian harm.

These obligations apply regardless of the political objectives of the parties involved.

They are relevant to Israeli forces, Palestinian armed groups and other parties to armed conflicts.

Soldiers and commanders may face legal responsibility for serious violations under applicable law.

The existence of a military objective does not remove the obligation to comply with the rules of war.

Nor does an individual's disagreement with a military operation automatically establish that it is unlawful.

The legality of particular conduct must be assessed through evidence and the applicable legal standards.

This distinction is central to responsible reporting on military refusal and personal responsibility.

### Breaking the Silence and Testimonies from Former Soldiers

Public debate about military conduct in Israel has also been influenced by former soldiers who describe their experiences after leaving service.

One prominent organization is Breaking the Silence, established in 2004 by Israeli veterans.

The organization collects and publishes testimonies concerning military service, particularly in the occupied Palestinian territories.

Its stated purpose includes encouraging public discussion about the realities of military operations and the effects of occupation.

Supporters argue that testimonies from former soldiers provide important information about practices that civilians may otherwise rarely encounter.

Critics question the organization's methods, political framing and the extent to which particular testimonies can be independently verified.

These disagreements are relevant to journalism.

First-person testimony can provide valuable evidence about personal experience, but it should not automatically be treated as proof of every broader allegation.

Where possible, claims should be examined alongside documents, official investigations, additional witnesses and other independently available evidence.

At the same time, criticism of an organization does not establish that every testimony it publishes is false.

The responsible approach is to evaluate specific claims on their merits.

The wider significance of such organizations lies in their contribution to public debate about the relationship between military service, occupation and individual responsibility.

### Reservist Protests During the 2023 Judicial Crisis

In 2023, Israel experienced major demonstrations against the government's proposed changes to the judicial system.

The proposals generated intense disagreement about the balance of power between the executive, legislature and judiciary.

Some reservists became involved in the protest movement.

Personnel associated with air force units, intelligence roles and other military specialties publicly expressed concern about the proposed changes.

Certain reservists announced that they would suspend voluntary reserve service if the legislation proceeded.

Others signed petitions or participated in demonstrations.

It is important to distinguish between several forms of action.

A public warning that someone may stop volunteering for additional reserve duties is not necessarily the same as refusing a legally binding call-up order.

Some reservists took steps affecting their participation, while others expressed conditional intentions.

The controversy became particularly sensitive because some specialized military roles depend on continued training and voluntary participation beyond minimum obligations.

Government supporters and military leaders warned that disruptions to reserve participation could affect operational readiness.

Protesters argued that they were defending democratic institutions and the constitutional foundations of the state.

The dispute raised a question that had rarely been so visible in Israeli public life.

Could military personnel use their willingness to serve as a form of political pressure?

### The Arguments Against Political Refusal

Critics of politically motivated military refusal emphasize the need to preserve the armed forces as an institution that operates independently of party politics.

Their concern is that military readiness could become vulnerable whenever groups of personnel disagree with government policy.

If reservists refuse service because they oppose judicial changes, others might refuse because they oppose territorial concessions, military operations or other political decisions.

Such a development could weaken the principle of civilian control over the armed forces.

It might also create inequalities between military units.

Personnel with highly specialized skills could potentially exert greater political influence because their absence would have a larger operational impact.

Critics argue that this would give certain groups disproportionate power over democratic decision-making.

From this perspective, political disagreements should be addressed through elections, public protest, parliamentary debate and legal processes rather than through military non-participation.

The argument does not require agreement with the government's policies.

It rests on the belief that military institutions must remain capable of carrying out lawful decisions regardless of the political views of individual service members.

### The Arguments in Defense of Conscience

Supporters of conscientious objection emphasize that military personnel remain individuals with moral and legal responsibilities.

They argue that compulsory service does not eliminate freedom of conscience.

For some, refusing participation in particular operations is a response to what they regard as serious violations of human rights or international law.

Others believe that individuals should not be forced to participate in warfare contrary to deeply held ethical or religious convictions.

Supporters of selective refusal also question whether legal systems should require individuals to participate in military activities they sincerely believe to be unjust.

They distinguish between rejecting national responsibility and rejecting a particular form of state action.

Some Israeli objectors explicitly state that their refusal is intended to promote a more secure and democratic future.

Critics challenge that interpretation and argue that refusal can place additional burdens on those who continue serving.

The ethical disagreement is therefore complex.

Freedom of conscience is an important right.

So are equality before the law and the state's legitimate responsibility to provide security.

The challenge is determining how these principles should be balanced when military service is compulsory.

### October 7 and the Return to Military Duty

The Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023, dramatically changed the context of the reservist protests.

As Israel initiated emergency mobilization, many reservists reported for duty, including individuals who had previously opposed government policies.

The immediate security crisis created a different set of priorities.

For some, the decision to serve reflected a distinction between political disagreement and the responsibility to defend civilians from armed attacks.

Others continued to criticize government policy while fulfilling military obligations.

The mobilization demonstrated that political opposition did not necessarily imply an unwillingness to participate in national defense.

However, it did not resolve the underlying disagreements.

As the war continued, debates emerged over military strategy, the treatment of Palestinians, the humanitarian consequences in Gaza and the government's handling of the hostage crisis.

These debates involved serving soldiers, veterans, reservists and their families.

The events after October 7 therefore complicated the public meaning of refusal.

The central question was no longer simply whether a reservist opposed a particular government.

It also concerned how individuals understood their responsibilities during a prolonged and controversial conflict.

### Refusal During the Gaza War

The war in Gaza following October 7 renewed public discussion about conscientious objection and selective refusal.

Some young Israelis publicly declined enlistment because they opposed the war or Israel's policies toward Palestinians.

Certain individuals faced military disciplinary proceedings or imprisonment.

Other Israelis continued serving while expressing criticism of particular operations or government decisions.

These positions should not be grouped together without distinction.

A person refusing all military service occupies a different position from a soldier questioning an order or a veteran criticizing government policy after discharge.

The experiences of objectors also need to be placed within the wider context of the conflict.

The October 7 attacks involved serious crimes against Israeli civilians, including killings and hostage-taking.

Israel's subsequent military operations in Gaza caused extensive Palestinian civilian suffering and generated major legal and humanitarian concerns.

For some conscientious objectors, these events reinforced opposition to military participation.

For others, the attacks strengthened the belief that military service was necessary to protect Israeli civilians.

Neither response can be assumed to represent an entire generation or political community.

The debate reflects the different ways individuals interpret security, morality and responsibility.

### Palestinian Citizens and the Question of Military Participation

The discussion of conscientious objection must also distinguish between citizens who are legally required to serve and those who generally are not conscripted.

Most Muslim and Christian Arab citizens of Israel are not routinely subject to compulsory military service.

Their non-participation should therefore not automatically be described as refusal.

Druze men and Circassian men are generally subject to different conscription arrangements.

Some Bedouin citizens and other Arab citizens volunteer.

These differences reflect historical and political arrangements within Israeli society.

For Palestinian Arab citizens, military participation can involve questions of national identity, family history and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Some individuals reject military service because they oppose participating in operations affecting Palestinians.

Others volunteer for personal, professional or civic reasons.

The distinction between non-conscription and conscientious objection matters because the legal and social circumstances are not identical.

A citizen who has no ordinary duty to enlist is not in the same position as an individual who receives a legally binding recruitment order and refuses to comply.

Responsible analysis requires recognizing these differences.

### The Role of Veterans in Democratic Debate

Former soldiers often occupy a distinctive position in Israeli public life.

Military experience may give them firsthand knowledge of training, command structures and operational conditions.

Some veterans use that experience to advocate stronger security policies.

Others become involved in peace initiatives, human rights organizations or campaigns for military accountability.

Still others avoid public political activity.

Military experience does not produce a single political outlook.

Nor does it automatically make a veteran's interpretation of events more accurate than that of other witnesses or experts.

However, veterans may possess relevant information about institutions and practices that are otherwise difficult to examine.

Their accounts can contribute to public understanding when they are evaluated critically and corroborated where possible.

The participation of veterans in public debate also challenges the assumption that support for the military requires agreement with every military policy.

Individuals may value their service while questioning decisions made by commanders or political leaders.

Others may remain strongly supportive of those decisions.

The diversity of veterans' views reflects the diversity of the wider society.

### Journalism, Evidence and Military Dissent

Reporting on military refusal presents particular challenges.

Conscientious objectors may describe deeply personal experiences and convictions.

Military authorities may emphasize legal obligations, discipline and operational requirements.

Political organizations may present individual cases as evidence supporting broader arguments.

Journalists must distinguish between these perspectives.

A person's stated motivation for refusing service should be reported accurately.

The legal consequences should be verified through applicable law and documented proceedings.

Allegations of unlawful military conduct require evidence and careful attribution.

Official military statements should be examined critically, just as claims made by activists or advocacy organizations should be.

It is also important to distinguish between opposition to a war, opposition to particular operations and opposition to military service in principle.

These positions may overlap, but they are not interchangeable.

Journalistic independence requires avoiding the assumption that military dissent is automatically courageous or automatically disloyal.

The relevant questions concern what individuals did, why they say they did it, what the law requires and what evidence supports the claims involved.

### Can a Democratic Society Accommodate Refusal?

The relationship between compulsory military service and freedom of conscience presents a difficult challenge for democratic states.

A government has a legitimate responsibility to protect its population.

Military institutions require sufficient personnel and reliable command structures.

At the same time, democratic systems recognize individual rights, including freedom of conscience and the right to express political disagreement.

These principles can come into conflict.

Broad recognition of selective refusal may create operational and equality concerns.

Overly restrictive policies may place individuals in situations where compliance violates deeply held moral or religious convictions.

Alternative service arrangements may address some objections, but they may not satisfy individuals who reject particular state policies rather than military service itself.

The challenge is not unique to Israel.

Countries with compulsory military service have confronted similar questions about pacifism, religious belief and civic responsibility.

Israel's circumstances make the debate especially intense because of its security environment, the prominence of the military in public life and the prolonged Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

The central issue is how to protect legitimate freedom of conscience without undermining the rule of law or the functioning of democratic institutions.

### Conclusion: The Limits of Obedience and the Responsibility of Conscience

Military service in Israel is often understood as an obligation connected to national security and collective responsibility.

For many citizens, fulfilling that obligation is a source of pride.

For others, participation in the armed forces raises profound moral questions.

The history of Israeli conscientious objection demonstrates that military dissent has taken different forms.

Some individuals reject all military service.

Others refuse particular assignments.

Some reservists have used the prospect of suspending voluntary duties as a form of political protest.

Veterans have also challenged military policies through public testimony and advocacy.

These actions differ in their motivations, legal status and consequences.

A democratic society must distinguish between lawful political criticism, recognized conscientious objection, refusal of lawful military duties and the obligation not to carry out manifestly unlawful orders.

Treating these categories as interchangeable obscures the legal and ethical questions involved.

The debate also reveals a broader tension within Israeli society.

Military service can be understood as an expression of citizenship, but citizenship also includes individual rights and moral agency.

The state may require citizens to serve under lawful conditions.

It must also remain accountable for the orders, policies and operations carried out in its name.

For soldiers, the responsibility to follow lawful commands exists alongside the responsibility to recognize the limits imposed by law.

For citizens, the right to question government policy remains essential even during periods of national insecurity.

And for Israeli democracy, the continuing challenge is to maintain military effectiveness without treating public dissent as inherently illegitimate.

The next chapter examines how these unresolved questions, together with demographic change, military manpower needs and shifting public expectations, may shape the future of compulsory service in Israel.

## Chapter 11 — The Future of Military Service in Israel

### A Military System Facing a Changing Society

For much of Israel's history, compulsory military service has been regarded as a foundation of national security.

The system was designed to allow a relatively small country to maintain a trained military force capable of responding to serious security threats.

Young citizens entered compulsory service, many remained available for reserve duty, and the armed forces could expand rapidly during emergencies.

For decades, this structure shaped not only Israel's defense planning but also its economy, political culture and national identity.

Yet the conditions under which the system developed have changed.

Israel's population has grown and become more diverse.

Military technology has transformed the skills required by modern armed forces.

The economic consequences of prolonged mobilization have become increasingly significant.

Religious and political disagreements have challenged assumptions about shared obligations.

And the Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023, followed by prolonged military operations, exposed serious questions about readiness, manpower and the sustainability of the reserve system.

These developments have intensified a debate that reaches beyond military organization.

What should compulsory service look like in a society where different communities experience citizenship and national responsibility in different ways?

How can the armed forces maintain sufficient personnel without placing disproportionate demands on particular groups?

And can a system built around broad military participation adapt to changing security, economic and social realities?

The future of Israeli military service will depend on how political leaders, military authorities and citizens respond to these questions.

### The Limits of the Existing Model

Israel's military service system combines compulsory enlistment, professional personnel and reserve forces.

This arrangement has provided important advantages.

It allows the IDF to maintain trained personnel without employing every former soldier permanently.

It also creates a pool of reservists who can be mobilized when security conditions require additional forces.

However, the model depends on several assumptions.

Compulsory recruitment must provide sufficient personnel.

Training must prepare soldiers for their assignments.

Reservists must remain available and operationally capable.

Civilian institutions must be able to absorb the disruption caused by military mobilization.

And public confidence must remain strong enough to sustain a system that places substantial obligations on citizens.

The events following October 7 placed these assumptions under considerable pressure.

Extended operations increased the demand for trained personnel.

Repeated reserve deployments affected families, employers and educational institutions.

Questions about military preparedness challenged confidence in existing training and command structures.

Disagreements about exemptions intensified concerns over the unequal distribution of service.

The result was a renewed examination of whether the current system could meet future security requirements without imposing unsustainable costs on civilian society.

### The Growing Demand for Military Personnel

One of the central challenges facing the IDF is ensuring that it has enough trained personnel for its operational responsibilities.

Military manpower requirements are influenced by the number and duration of deployments, the types of threats being addressed and the structure of the armed forces.

A prolonged conflict may require more personnel than a short emergency mobilization.

Border security, intelligence, logistics, maintenance, medical services and combat operations all place demands on available forces.

Recruitment policy must therefore be connected to realistic assessments of military needs.

Increasing the number of recruits may help address shortages, but it is not a complete solution.

New personnel require training, equipment, supervision and appropriate assignments.

The military must also retain experienced officers, specialists and instructors.

A larger force without sufficient training or leadership would not necessarily be more effective.

Future reforms will need to consider both the number of available personnel and the quality of their preparation.

This distinction is especially important when public debate focuses on recruitment targets without examining the resources required to turn recruits into capable service members.

### Will Compulsory Service Become Longer?

The duration of compulsory military service has repeatedly been discussed in connection with Israel's security requirements.

Service obligations have changed over time and can differ according to gender, military role and applicable legal arrangements.

Periods of heightened operational demand have renewed proposals to extend service for certain categories of personnel.

Supporters of longer compulsory service argue that additional months could improve continuity, preserve operational experience and reduce immediate pressure on reserve forces.

A soldier who remains in active service longer may be able to contribute without requiring the military to mobilize a reservist for the same position.

However, longer service also creates costs.

Young people may begin university studies or civilian employment later.

Families may face extended periods of separation.

The economy may lose access to workers who would otherwise enter the labor market.

The military must also provide salaries, training, accommodation and other support for additional service time.

Longer compulsory service therefore involves a trade-off.

It may improve military staffing in some areas while increasing the burden on young citizens and the wider economy.

The appropriate duration cannot be determined solely by comparing recruitment numbers.

It requires examining operational needs, training requirements and the social consequences of extending service.

### Reforming the Reserve System

The reserve system has been one of the most important elements of Israel's defense structure.

It has also become one of the most heavily debated.

Reservists may spend years developing civilian careers and family responsibilities while remaining available for military mobilization.

During emergencies, they can be called away from those responsibilities at short notice.

The prolonged demands following October 7 highlighted the difficulties of maintaining this arrangement during extended military operations.

Repeated deployments can disrupt employment, education and family life.

They can also affect motivation and long-term readiness.

Future reforms may involve reconsidering how frequently reservists are called, how long deployments should last and which responsibilities can be performed by active-duty personnel.

Another possibility is greater investment in permanent military positions for roles that require continuous staffing.

This could reduce reliance on reservists for certain assignments.

However, maintaining a larger permanent force would increase defense expenditure.

It could also change the relationship between military service and civilian society.

The central question is whether Israel should continue relying so extensively on a citizen-soldier model or gradually shift some responsibilities toward a larger professional military structure.

### The Economic Consequences of Military Reform

Military service has substantial economic implications.

Compulsory enlistment delays entry into higher education and full-time employment for many young Israelis.

Reserve duty can interrupt careers and business operations.

Extended mobilization may reduce productivity and create staffing shortages.

These costs are not always fully reflected in defense budgets.

A reservist's absence can affect an employer, colleagues, customers and family members.

Small businesses may be especially vulnerable.

At the same time, maintaining a large professional military force would require additional public spending.

Governments must therefore consider different forms of cost.

A system that appears less expensive within the military budget may impose greater burdens on civilian economic activity.

A more professional force could reduce some disruptions while increasing direct defense expenditure.

The economic consequences of reform would also depend on how personnel are recruited, trained and retained.

Future policy decisions should therefore examine the full economic effects of military service rather than focusing only on the cost of employing soldiers.

### The Ultra-Orthodox Conscription Question

The future of military service cannot be separated from the debate over ultra-Orthodox Jewish conscription.

For decades, many Haredi men studying in religious institutions received deferments under arrangements that became increasingly controversial.

As the ultra-Orthodox population grew, the scale of these arrangements changed significantly.

The debate intensified after October 7 as the military mobilized large numbers of reservists and faced growing personnel demands.

In June 2024, Israel's Supreme Court ruled that the government could not continue broadly refraining from drafting eligible ultra-Orthodox yeshiva students without a valid legal basis.

The judgment reinforced the principle that military recruitment policies must comply with the law.

However, legal obligations and practical recruitment are not the same.

Expanding Haredi enlistment requires administrative capacity, training facilities and arrangements addressing religious observance.

It also requires decisions about enforcement and the treatment of individuals who do not comply with recruitment orders.

Some ultra-Orthodox men already serve in the armed forces.

Others strongly oppose compulsory recruitment.

Religious leaders differ in their willingness to accept particular service arrangements.

Future reforms will need to address these divisions.

The challenge is to develop a system that respects religious freedom while responding to military needs and concerns about equal obligations.

### Can Military Service Become More Equal?

The principle of equality is central to the debate about the future of conscription.

Yet equality does not necessarily mean that every citizen performs identical military duties.

Modern armed forces require people with different skills and capabilities.

Some individuals may be suited to combat roles.

Others may contribute through medicine, technology, logistics or administrative work.

Certain citizens may be unable to serve for medical or other legally recognized reasons.

The more difficult question concerns differences based on community membership, religious arrangements and historical recruitment policies.

Most Muslim and Christian Arab citizens are not routinely conscripted.

Druze and Circassian men are generally subject to different obligations.

Ultra-Orthodox recruitment remains contested.

Women and men may also experience different service requirements.

These distinctions reflect a combination of historical decisions, legal arrangements and social expectations.

Future reforms could attempt to broaden participation through military or civilian service.

However, such proposals would raise important questions about the rights and identities of communities that have historically not been drafted.

For Palestinian Arab citizens, compulsory participation in institutions connected to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict would involve particularly sensitive political and ethical issues.

A more equal system would therefore require careful consideration of both obligations and rights.

Equality cannot be assessed only through recruitment statistics.

It also concerns whether citizens receive equal treatment, protection and opportunities.

### The Changing Role of Women

Women's participation in the IDF has expanded considerably since the establishment of the state.

Women now serve in a wide range of positions, including combat, intelligence, technology, aviation, medical services and military leadership.

These developments have challenged earlier assumptions about the roles women can perform.

The October 7 attacks also brought renewed attention to the experiences of female soldiers.

Women serving in surveillance and other military positions were among those killed or abducted during the assault.

Questions emerged about the treatment of warnings provided by female surveillance personnel and the preparedness of units stationed near Gaza.

These events intensified discussion about professional recognition, command responsibility and gender equality.

Future reforms may involve expanding opportunities for women in additional military roles.

They may also require reassessing training, equipment and career development systems.

However, equality cannot be measured solely by the number of positions formally open to women.

It also depends on access to advancement, appropriate working conditions, protection from harassment and the recognition of professional expertise.

The future of women's military service will therefore involve both operational planning and broader questions about equality within military institutions.

### Technology and the Changing Nature of Warfare

Military technology is transforming the skills required by modern armed forces.

Cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, advanced communications, unmanned systems and intelligence analysis have become increasingly important components of national defense.

Israel has invested heavily in technological military capabilities.

Specialized units have also contributed to the development of professional expertise that can later be applied in civilian industries.

These changes may influence future recruitment priorities.

The military may require more personnel with technical, analytical and engineering skills.

Some assignments may demand extended specialist training rather than traditional military preparation.

Other roles may be altered by automation and remote systems.

However, technological advancement does not eliminate the need for human judgment.

The failures surrounding October 7 demonstrated that sophisticated surveillance and defensive technology cannot guarantee security when intelligence assessments and operational planning are inadequate.

Technology must be integrated into effective command structures and supported by trained personnel.

The use of artificial intelligence and automated systems also raises legal and ethical questions.

Military decisions involving the use of force must remain subject to applicable international humanitarian law.

Human responsibility for targeting decisions and civilian protection cannot be replaced by assumptions about technological accuracy.

The future military may become more technologically advanced, but its effectiveness will continue to depend on institutional judgment and accountability.

### Professional Soldiers or Citizen-Soldiers?

One of the broader questions facing Israel is whether its traditional military model should change.

A citizen-soldier system draws heavily on compulsory service and reserves.

A professional military relies more extensively on personnel who choose military service as a career.

Each approach has advantages and limitations.

Compulsory service can provide a large pool of trained personnel and connect the armed forces to a broad section of society.

It can also impose significant obligations on individuals who would not otherwise choose military careers.

A professional force may offer greater continuity and specialized experience.

However, it can be expensive and may struggle to recruit enough personnel during periods of high demand.

A transition toward a more professional structure would also influence Israeli society.

Military service has historically been connected to identity, social networks and professional opportunities.

Reducing compulsory service could change those relationships.

It might also alter public perceptions of the military as an institution representing society as a whole.

There is no automatic reason to assume that one model is universally superior.

The appropriate structure depends on security requirements, economic resources, recruitment capacity and democratic accountability.

For Israel, any major change would have consequences extending well beyond military organization.

### Mental Health and Long-Term Support

The future of military service will also depend on how the state supports personnel during and after their service.

Military duties can expose individuals to danger, prolonged stress and potentially traumatic events.

Some soldiers return to civilian life without significant long-term difficulties.

Others require medical treatment, psychological assistance or rehabilitation.

The demands placed on reservists can create additional pressures because they must repeatedly transition between military and civilian responsibilities.

Families may also require support during deployments and after service members return home.

Future reforms may need to strengthen access to mental health services, rehabilitation programs and assistance for families.

They may also involve improving the recognition of service-related injuries and ensuring that eligible personnel can obtain appropriate care.

Preventive measures are equally important.

Training, leadership, rest periods and realistic deployment schedules can influence the wellbeing of military personnel.

A sustainable service system must consider not only whether soldiers are available for duty but also whether they receive adequate support before, during and after that duty.

### The Relationship Between Military Service and Civilian Opportunity

Military service can influence access to education, employment and professional networks.

Some military assignments provide skills that are highly valued in civilian industries.

Former members of technology and intelligence units may benefit from training and connections developed during service.

Other assignments provide different forms of experience.

Citizens who do not serve may have fewer opportunities to access certain networks.

This raises questions about the relationship between military participation and civilian equality.

Should military service provide advantages in employment or education?

If so, how should those advantages be balanced against the rights of citizens who were never required to serve?

Should alternative forms of national contribution receive comparable recognition?

These questions will become increasingly relevant if recruitment policies change.

A future service system could place greater emphasis on transferable professional skills and educational support.

However, policymakers would also need to ensure that military experience does not become an unjustified barrier to civilian opportunities.

A society can recognize the contributions of military personnel without treating non-service as evidence of lesser citizenship.

### Public Trust and Military Accountability

The future of military service will depend partly on public confidence in the armed forces.

Compulsory service requires the state to exercise significant authority over individuals.

Citizens may be required to leave education or employment, follow military orders and accept substantial personal risks.

Such obligations create responsibilities for political and military leaders.

Personnel must receive appropriate training and equipment.

Military operations must comply with the law.

Commanders must be accountable for their decisions.

And failures must be investigated through credible procedures.

The events of October 7 demonstrated the consequences of weaknesses in intelligence, preparedness and command.

They also generated demands for greater transparency and accountability.

Future reforms may therefore involve changes to oversight, intelligence procedures, training and military leadership.

However, institutional reform cannot be measured only by the publication of investigations or the announcement of new policies.

The more important question is whether identified weaknesses lead to lasting improvements.

Public trust depends on evidence that institutions are capable of learning from failure.

### The Role of Political Leadership

Military service policy is ultimately connected to political decision-making.

The government and Knesset establish the legal framework within which the armed forces operate.

They influence defense budgets, recruitment arrangements and the distribution of national responsibilities.

Military commanders provide professional assessments and implement lawful policy.

However, decisions about the overall structure of compulsory service require democratic accountability.

Political leaders must consider competing interests.

The military requires sufficient personnel.

Citizens have rights and legitimate expectations of equal treatment.

Religious communities seek protection for their institutions and traditions.

Employers and families face the consequences of mobilization.

These interests cannot always be reconciled through technical adjustments.

Some decisions require political compromise.

Others require clear legal standards.

The long-running Haredi conscription debate demonstrates the consequences of allowing fundamental questions about national obligations to remain unresolved.

A sustainable military service system requires a legal framework that can be implemented consistently and withstand public and judicial scrutiny.

### The Security Environment and Future Planning

Israel's future military requirements will also depend on regional developments.

The country's security environment includes threats from armed groups, tensions with neighboring actors and broader regional rivalries.

Changes in these circumstances may influence military staffing, reserve readiness and defense expenditure.

However, long-term planning cannot be based solely on assumptions that current conflicts will continue indefinitely.

Military institutions must prepare for different possibilities.

These may include renewed armed conflict, periods of relative stability, technological changes and diplomatic developments.

A flexible defense system should be capable of adapting to changing conditions.

This requires investment in intelligence, training and institutional planning.

It also requires recognizing that military capabilities are only one component of national security.

Diplomatic relationships, economic stability, social cohesion and political decision-making can influence security outcomes.

The future of military service will therefore be shaped not only by developments within the IDF but also by Israel's broader strategic and political choices.

### What Would a Sustainable System Look Like?

A sustainable military service system must balance several objectives.

It must provide sufficient personnel to meet legitimate security requirements.

It must distribute obligations according to a clear and lawful framework.

It must respect fundamental rights and accommodate genuine individual circumstances.

It must recognize the economic and social costs imposed on service members and their families.

And it must maintain public confidence through professional leadership and accountability.

Achieving all these objectives simultaneously is difficult.

Expanding recruitment may improve manpower but create new social tensions.

Extending compulsory service may reduce immediate staffing shortages while delaying civilian careers.

Increasing reliance on professional soldiers may improve continuity but require greater expenditure.

Reducing reserve obligations may support families and businesses while requiring changes elsewhere in the military structure.

Every reform involves trade-offs.

The central challenge is to make those trade-offs transparent and subject to democratic scrutiny.

A sustainable system cannot depend indefinitely on exceptional mobilization, unresolved legal arrangements or the assumption that families and employers can absorb unlimited disruption.

### The Future Generation of Israeli Soldiers

Young Israelis entering military service in the coming years will inherit a system shaped by the events of October 7 and the conflicts that followed.

They will also inherit debates about equality, religion, political responsibility and the relationship between military service and civilian life.

Their experiences may differ substantially from those of previous generations.

Some may enter a military that places greater emphasis on technology and specialized training.

Others may serve under revised recruitment arrangements.

Reservists may face different obligations if the system is restructured.

Women may gain access to additional roles.

Communities historically outside the main conscription framework may encounter new expectations or legal requirements.

The direction of these changes remains a matter of political and institutional choice.

What is clear is that military service will continue to influence Israeli society well beyond the armed forces.

It will shape education, employment, family life and public debate.

It will also influence how citizens understand their relationship with the state.

### Conclusion: The Future Is About More Than Recruitment

The future of military service in Israel cannot be reduced to a question of how many soldiers the IDF needs.

It concerns the relationship between national security and civilian society.

The existing system developed under historical circumstances that differ significantly from those facing Israel today.

Demographic change, technological development, prolonged military operations and growing debates about equality have created pressure for reform.

The events following October 7 exposed both the strengths and limitations of a military structure built around compulsory service and large-scale reserve mobilization.

They demonstrated the ability of the state to call upon trained personnel during an emergency.

They also revealed the considerable costs borne by soldiers, families, employers and communities.

Future decisions will require balancing military readiness with economic sustainability, religious freedom, equal treatment and individual rights.

They will also require political leaders to address questions that have remained unresolved for decades.

Who should serve?

How long should service last?

What responsibilities should be shared?

And what obligations does the state have toward those it requires to place their civilian lives on hold?

These questions do not have simple answers.

But they will help determine whether Israel's military service system can remain effective, legitimate and sustainable in the decades ahead.

The final chapter brings these issues together and examines what military service reveals about citizenship, identity and the social contract in Israeli society.

## Chapter 12 — Conclusion: Service, Citizenship and a Divided Social Contract

### More Than a Military Obligation

Military service in Israel has never been simply a matter of recruitment, training and national defense.

Since the establishment of the state in 1948, the armed forces have occupied a central position in Israeli society, influencing national identity, political culture, education, employment and family life.

For generations of Israelis, military service has represented a transition into adulthood and an opportunity to contribute to the security of the country.

It has brought people from different backgrounds into shared institutions, created lifelong relationships and provided professional opportunities that extend beyond the military.

Yet the same system has also exposed divisions within Israeli society.

Not all citizens are subject to the same military obligations.

Not all communities understand service in the same way.

And not all individuals experience the benefits, responsibilities or consequences of military participation equally.

The history of Israeli military service is therefore a story of both collective responsibility and unequal expectations.

It reflects the country's security concerns, but also its unresolved debates about religion, identity, democracy and citizenship.

To understand military service in Israel is to understand something fundamental about the society itself.

### A System Built Under Extraordinary Circumstances

Israel's compulsory military service system emerged during a period of war, displacement and political transformation.

The creation of the state in 1948 was followed by the development of national institutions intended to protect its population and maintain its security.

The Israel Defense Forces became one of the most important of these institutions.

The country's relatively small population and challenging security environment contributed to the development of a military structure combining compulsory service with reserve forces.

This arrangement allowed Israel to maintain a trained population capable of responding to major emergencies.

It also established a close relationship between military service and civilian life.

Young people entered the armed forces before beginning many of their adult careers.

Former soldiers remained available for reserve duty.

Families and employers adapted to the possibility of military mobilization.

Over time, these arrangements became deeply embedded in Israeli society.

However, the system developed within a particular historical and political context.

The establishment of Israel was also accompanied by the Palestinian Nakba, during which hundreds of thousands of Palestinians fled or were expelled from their homes.

The conflict between Israelis and Palestinians continued to shape the country's security policies and the experiences of the populations affected by them.

Military service therefore developed not only as a national institution but also within an unresolved regional conflict.

That historical context remains essential to understanding the role of the armed forces today.

### The Promise of Shared Responsibility

One of the central ideas associated with compulsory military service is that national defense should be a shared responsibility.

In principle, citizens who benefit from the protection of the state may also be expected to contribute to its security.

For many Israelis, this principle remains powerful.

Military service can represent a willingness to place collective responsibilities above individual convenience.

It may require young people to postpone education or employment.

Reservists may leave families and businesses during emergencies.

Soldiers may face physical danger and significant personal sacrifice.

These obligations can create a sense of solidarity among those who serve.

Shared military experiences may bring together individuals from different regions, socioeconomic backgrounds and religious traditions.

For some, the IDF has provided opportunities that might otherwise have been difficult to access.

However, the promise of shared responsibility depends partly on whether citizens believe that obligations are distributed fairly.

When substantial differences exist between communities, the principle becomes more complicated.

The question is no longer simply whether military service is necessary.

It is whether the state has established a just and consistent framework for determining who must serve.

### A Society That Does Not Serve Equally

Israel's military service system reflects the country's diverse population.

Jewish Israelis from secular, traditional and national-religious backgrounds have generally formed a major part of the conscript population.

Druze men and Circassian men are subject to particular conscription arrangements.

Some Bedouin citizens and other Arab citizens volunteer.

Most Muslim and Christian Arab citizens are not routinely drafted.

Ultra-Orthodox Jewish conscription has remained the subject of prolonged legal and political dispute.

Women and men also experience different obligations and opportunities, depending on applicable rules and military assignments.

These differences cannot be explained by one principle alone.

They emerged through historical agreements, religious considerations, political decisions and the changing requirements of the armed forces.

For some communities, military service has become a tradition closely connected to identity and belonging.

For others, participation raises difficult questions about political loyalty, religion or the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

The result is a system in which the meaning of citizenship is not experienced uniformly.

Military service may strengthen the relationship between certain citizens and the state while highlighting the different position of others.

This does not mean that military participation is the only legitimate form of civic contribution.

It does mean that a state which imposes compulsory obligations must be able to explain the legal and ethical basis for differences in treatment.

### The Debate Over Equality

The controversy surrounding ultra-Orthodox conscription illustrates the difficulty of reconciling religious freedom with compulsory military obligations.

For many Haredi communities, Torah study is central to religious life and Jewish continuity.

For many soldiers and reservists, broad deferments have raised questions about fairness, particularly during periods of prolonged military operations.

The debate has become increasingly significant as Israel's population and military requirements have changed.

Repeated Supreme Court rulings have emphasized the need for a lawful framework governing recruitment and exemptions.

Yet legal decisions alone cannot resolve the underlying social disagreement.

Some citizens understand equal responsibility primarily through military participation.

Others argue that different communities may contribute through religious study, civilian service or other activities.

The central challenge is determining which differences are justified and how the state should recognize them.

Equality does not necessarily require every citizen to perform identical duties.

But it does require that distinctions between citizens have a legitimate basis and are implemented consistently with the law.

The question of military service therefore reaches beyond the IDF.

It concerns the meaning of equal citizenship in a society containing different religious, cultural and national identities.

### Women and the Changing Meaning of Service

Women's participation in the Israeli armed forces has been part of the country's military history since its establishment.

Over time, women have gained access to a wider range of operational, technical and leadership positions.

These developments have challenged traditional assumptions about military roles.

They have also created new opportunities for professional advancement.

However, formal access to positions does not automatically guarantee equal treatment.

Women may still encounter barriers related to promotion, institutional culture, harassment or assumptions about physical and professional capabilities.

The experiences of female surveillance soldiers before and during October 7 raised particularly serious questions about whether warnings from lower-ranking personnel were adequately considered.

These concerns demonstrate that military equality involves more than recruitment numbers.

It also requires professional recognition, appropriate training and a command culture in which relevant information is taken seriously.

The future of women's military service will depend not only on which positions become available but also on whether the institution provides genuinely equal opportunities and protections.

### The Families Who Carry the Burden

Military service is often measured through the number of recruits, active soldiers and reservists.

These figures are important for understanding military capacity.

But they do not capture the full human consequences of service.

Behind every soldier are people whose lives may be affected by military obligations.

Parents worry about children serving in dangerous areas.

Partners manage households during prolonged deployments.

Children experience separation from mothers or fathers.

Employers reorganize workplaces when reservists are called away.

Families of injured soldiers may face years of rehabilitation and practical adjustments.

Bereaved families carry losses that cannot be reduced to national casualty statistics.

The emotional consequences of service are particularly significant during prolonged conflicts.

Repeated deployments can create financial pressure, exhaustion and uncertainty.

Returning home may require difficult adjustments for both soldiers and their families.

For some, military service becomes a source of pride and lasting connection.

For others, it leaves physical or psychological consequences that continue long after formal obligations have ended.

A responsible discussion of national defense must recognize these experiences.

The costs of military service are not carried by soldiers alone.

They extend into the wider society.

### October 7: The Collapse of Certainty

The Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023, represented a profound turning point in Israel's relationship with its military.

The attacks killed approximately 1,200 people in Israel and resulted in the abduction of around 250 people into Gaza.

The assault exposed serious failures in intelligence assessment, defensive preparedness and military response.

For many Israelis, the events challenged a central assumption: that the state's security institutions would be able to recognize and respond effectively to a major attack.

The consequences extended far beyond the immediate violence.

Families questioned the protection provided to soldiers stationed near Gaza.

Reservists were mobilized on an extraordinary scale.

Young recruits entered the armed forces during a period of heightened danger.

Public confidence in political and military leadership came under intense pressure.

Investigations into the failures raised questions about institutional responsibility and the treatment of intelligence warnings.

The events also demonstrated the distinction between individual courage and institutional effectiveness.

Soldiers and security personnel may act bravely during an emergency while the organizations responsible for preparing and directing them fail.

Recognizing that distinction is essential to understanding October 7.

The actions of individuals cannot erase failures of command.

And institutional failures should not obscure the experiences of those who attempted to protect civilians.

### The War and Its Wider Human Consequences

The military operations that followed October 7 placed extensive demands on Israeli soldiers and reservists.

They also caused devastating consequences for Palestinian civilians in Gaza.

Large numbers of people were killed or injured, and widespread displacement and destruction affected homes, infrastructure and essential services.

The conflict generated serious humanitarian concerns and international legal scrutiny.

These consequences are relevant to any examination of Israeli military service.

Soldiers do not operate outside the political and legal circumstances of the conflicts in which they participate.

Military operations are subject to international humanitarian law, including obligations concerning the protection of civilians.

The responsibility to comply with those rules applies regardless of the military objectives being pursued.

For Israeli society, the war intensified debate about security, military strategy, the fate of hostages and the responsibilities of political leaders.

For Palestinians, the conflict brought immense suffering and renewed questions about protection, rights and the future.

A comprehensive understanding of military service must acknowledge both the experiences of those serving and the consequences of the operations in which they participate.

These perspectives are not interchangeable, but neither can be excluded from responsible journalism.

### The Importance of Accountability

The events of October 7 demonstrated why public confidence in military institutions cannot depend solely on reputation or technological capability.

A military organization must be able to examine its own failures.

That requires credible investigations, professional leadership and a willingness to correct institutional weaknesses.

Accountability may involve intelligence procedures, training, command decisions and the responsibilities of senior officials.

It also requires examining the relationship between military institutions and elected political leaders.

In a democratic society, the armed forces operate under civilian authority and within the law.

Political leaders are responsible for major policy decisions.

Military commanders are responsible for the lawful execution of their duties.

Individual soldiers remain subject to legal obligations, including the duty not to carry out manifestly unlawful orders.

These responsibilities exist at different levels, but they are connected.

Respect for military personnel should not prevent scrutiny of military decisions.

Likewise, criticism of military institutions should not automatically be interpreted as opposition to national security.

Accountability is not the opposite of loyalty.

It is one of the conditions under which public institutions can maintain legitimacy.

### The Right to Question Military Service

Israel's history of conscientious objection and military dissent reveals another dimension of the relationship between citizenship and service.

Some Israelis refuse military participation because of religious or ethical convictions.

Others object to particular military operations or policies.

Veterans and reservists have also participated in public debate about the conduct of the armed forces and the responsibilities of political leaders.

These positions differ in their legal status and moral reasoning.

A person who opposes all warfare is not necessarily making the same argument as someone who refuses a particular deployment.

Political protest is not identical to disobeying a legally binding military order.

And the duty to refuse a manifestly unlawful order must be distinguished from personal disagreement with government policy.

These distinctions matter because democratic citizenship includes both obligations and rights.

The state may impose lawful military duties.

Citizens may also question public policy, seek legal remedies and express political disagreement.

The challenge is to preserve military discipline without treating every form of dissent as illegitimate.

A society's ability to examine military decisions critically is an important measure of democratic accountability.

### The Future of a Citizen-Soldier Society

Israel's military service system faces significant questions about its long-term sustainability.

Demographic change has altered the composition of the population.

Technological developments have transformed military requirements.

Extended reserve mobilization has demonstrated the economic and emotional costs of prolonged conflict.

Debates about religious exemptions and gender equality have intensified.

And the events following October 7 have renewed questions about preparedness, manpower and political responsibility.

Future reforms may involve changes to compulsory service, reserve obligations, recruitment arrangements and the balance between professional and citizen-soldier forces.

Each possibility involves difficult choices.

Longer compulsory service may improve military staffing while delaying civilian education and employment.

Expanded recruitment may address personnel shortages while creating new social and religious tensions.

A larger professional military could provide greater continuity but require additional public expenditure.

Changes to the reserve system may reduce pressure on families and businesses while requiring different military structures.

No single reform can resolve every challenge.

The future of military service will depend on how Israel balances security requirements with legal equality, economic sustainability and individual rights.

### Citizenship Cannot Be Measured Only in Uniform

Military service occupies an unusually prominent place in Israeli society.

It can create shared experiences, professional opportunities and a sense of national belonging.

Yet citizenship encompasses more than participation in the armed forces.

It also involves legal rights, political representation, freedom of conscience and access to public institutions.

Citizens contribute to society in many ways.

They work in hospitals, schools, businesses and public services.

They raise families, participate in community organizations and engage in democratic debate.

Some serve in the military.

Others are exempt, not conscripted or participate through different forms of public service.

These distinctions should not automatically determine the value of a person's citizenship.

At the same time, the existence of compulsory military obligations creates legitimate questions about fairness.

A state that requires some citizens to undertake dangerous and disruptive duties must be able to justify how those obligations are distributed.

The challenge is to recognize military service without making it the sole measure of belonging.

This is particularly important in a society where communities have different historical relationships with the state and its security institutions.

### The Divided Social Contract

The concept of a social contract describes the relationship between individuals and the state, including the rights citizens receive and the responsibilities they are expected to fulfill.

Military service makes that relationship especially visible.

The state asks eligible citizens to surrender time, accept restrictions on personal freedom and potentially place themselves in danger.

In return, citizens may reasonably expect lawful treatment, adequate preparation, appropriate support and responsible leadership.

They may also expect the state to distribute obligations according to principles that can be publicly defended.

In Israel, this relationship is complicated by the country's diversity and history.

Different communities have different experiences of military service.

Some regard it as a central expression of national belonging.

Others see it as an institution from which they are excluded, exempted or politically alienated.

The result is a social contract that is neither uniformly experienced nor universally accepted.

These divisions do not mean that Israeli society lacks shared values or institutions.

They mean that the relationship between citizenship and military obligation remains contested.

The debate over service is therefore also a debate about the kind of society Israel wishes to become.

### Beyond the Uniform: The People Behind the Institution

Military organizations are often represented through equipment, uniforms, operations and official statements.

These images can obscure the people whose lives are connected to military service.

A young recruit entering basic training may be uncertain about the future.

A reservist may worry about leaving a business or family behind.

A parent may wait for news from a child stationed near a conflict zone.

A wounded veteran may struggle to rebuild an independent life.

A conscientious objector may face the consequences of refusing an obligation that others consider essential.

A citizen from a community that is not routinely conscripted may experience the relationship between military service and national identity very differently.

Each of these experiences reveals a different aspect of Israeli society.

None can fully represent the country on its own.

Together, they demonstrate why military service cannot be understood solely through official institutions or national narratives.

It is a deeply personal experience shaped by history, community, opportunity, obligation and individual choice.

### Final Reflection: What Military Service Reveals About Israel

Military service in Israel is both a security institution and a reflection of the society that sustains it.

It reveals a country shaped by repeated conflict and a continuing concern for national defense.

It reveals strong traditions of public service and collective responsibility.

It also reveals inequalities, political disagreements and unresolved questions about religion and citizenship.

The events of October 7 brought these realities into sharper focus.

They demonstrated the importance of military readiness while exposing serious institutional failures.

They showed the capacity for large-scale mobilization while revealing the costs carried by families and civilian institutions.

They intensified debates about equality and the distribution of military obligations.

And they raised difficult questions about the responsibilities of political leaders, military commanders and individual soldiers.

The future of Israeli military service will depend on more than recruitment policies or defense budgets.

It will depend on whether the state can maintain public trust, uphold the law and establish a sustainable relationship between national security and civilian life.

For some Israelis, military service will remain a defining expression of belonging.

For others, it will continue to raise questions about conscience, identity and equal citizenship.

Both realities form part of the country's social and political landscape.

To understand Israel beyond the headlines is to recognize these complexities without reducing them to a single narrative.

The story of military service is not only about the soldiers who serve.

It is also about the families who wait, the communities that participate differently, the citizens who question established obligations and the institutions responsible for protecting the people they represent.

Ultimately, the most important question may not be how many citizens wear a uniform.

It is whether the obligations imposed in the name of national security are accompanied by equal respect for the rights, dignity and responsibilities of everyone who lives under the state's authority.

That is the deeper challenge at the heart of Israel's military service debate.

And it is a question that will continue to shape the country's future long after any individual period of military service has ended.

---

## Sources & Further Reading

The following sources provide historical, legal, institutional and humanitarian background for this article. They include Israeli government publications, independent research institutions, international organizations and primary legal materials.

### Israeli Military Service, Law and Society

**1\. The Knesset — Basic Law: The Military**

Israel's constitutional framework governing the Israel Defense Forces, civilian authority over the military and the legal basis of compulsory service.

[https://main.knesset.gov.il/EN/activity/documents/BasicLawsPDF/BasicLawTheMilitary.pdf](https://main.knesset.gov.il/EN/activity/documents/BasicLawsPDF/BasicLawTheMilitary.pdf?ref=beyondthelines.news)

**2\. Israel Democracy Institute — Religion and State Research Programme**

Research and analysis concerning military conscription, religious exemptions, equality, civic obligations and the relationship between religion and government.

[https://en.idi.org.il/centers/1157/1516](https://en.idi.org.il/centers/1157/1516?ref=beyondthelines.news)

**3\. Israel Democracy Institute — Haredi Conscription**

Research materials examining the history of ultra-Orthodox military deferments, demographic developments, recruitment policy and the challenges of expanding military participation.

[https://en.idi.org.il/galleries/serving-together/](https://en.idi.org.il/galleries/serving-together/?ref=beyondthelines.news)

**4\. Israel Democracy Institute — Ultra-Orthodox Conscription: What Happens Next?**

Analysis of the practical implications of the June 2024 Supreme Court ruling and the challenges of recruiting ultra-Orthodox men into the IDF.

[https://en.idi.org.il/galleries/55114](https://en.idi.org.il/galleries/55114?ref=beyondthelines.news)

**5\. Institute for Comprehensive Growth Strategy — Recruitment of Arab and Druze Citizens for Security and Civil Service in Israel**

A 2026 study examining differences in military and civilian service participation across Israeli communities and possible approaches to broader national service.

[https://icgs.org.il/en/publications/recruitment-arab-and-druze/](https://icgs.org.il/en/publications/recruitment-arab-and-druze/?ref=beyondthelines.news)

### October 7, Military Preparedness and Accountability

**6\. Israel Defense Forces — The October 7 Inquiries**

Official military investigations into the attacks of October 7, 2023, including assessments of defensive failures, military preparedness and events in affected communities.

These are primary institutional sources and should be considered alongside independent reporting and other investigations.

[https://www.idf.il/en/mini-sites/710-the-inquiries/](https://www.idf.il/en/mini-sites/710-the-inquiries/?ref=beyondthelines.news)

**7\. Israel Defense Forces — Official Media Releases**

Official military announcements, operational statements and information concerning military service, recruitment, women in the armed forces and institutional developments.

[https://www.idf.il/en/idf-media-releases/](https://www.idf.il/en/idf-media-releases/?ref=beyondthelines.news)

### Military Families, Injuries and Rehabilitation

**8\. Israel Ministry of Defense — Rehabilitation Department**

Official information concerning assistance, rehabilitation and support for eligible injured and disabled veterans, including medical, social and employment-related services.

[https://www.mod.gov.il/en/departments/rehabilitation-department](https://www.mod.gov.il/en/departments/rehabilitation-department?ref=beyondthelines.news)

### Conscientious Objection and Human Rights

**9\. United Nations Human Rights Office — Conscientious Objection to Military Service**

An examination of conscientious objection under international human rights law, including freedom of thought, conscience and religion.

[https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/ReportConscientiousObjectiontoMilitaryService.pdf](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/ReportConscientiousObjectiontoMilitaryService.pdf?ref=beyondthelines.news)

### International Humanitarian Law and Civilian Protection

**10\. International Committee of the Red Cross — Conduct of Hostilities and Protection of Civilians**

An explanation of the legal principles governing military operations, including distinction, proportionality, precautions and the protection of civilians.

[https://www.icrc.org/en/law-and-policy/conduct-hostilities-and-protection-civilians](https://www.icrc.org/en/law-and-policy/conduct-hostilities-and-protection-civilians?ref=beyondthelines.news)

**11\. International Committee of the Red Cross — Customary International Humanitarian Law Database**

A reference database covering customary rules applicable during armed conflict, including the responsibilities of military personnel and commanders.

[https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl](https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl?ref=beyondthelines.news)

**12\. International Committee of the Red Cross — Israel and the Occupied Territories**

Background on international humanitarian law and the protection of civilians in Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories.

[https://www.icrc.org/en/document/Frequently-asked-questions-icrcs-work-Israel-and-occupied-territories](https://www.icrc.org/en/document/Frequently-asked-questions-icrcs-work-Israel-and-occupied-territories?ref=beyondthelines.news)

**13\. International Court of Justice — South Africa v. Israel**

Official case documentation concerning proceedings under the Genocide Convention, including court orders, submissions and procedural developments.

[https://www.icj-cij.org/case/192](https://www.icj-cij.org/case/192?ref=beyondthelines.news)

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### Editorial Note

This article draws on official records, historical background, legal research and humanitarian sources to examine the relationship between military service and Israeli society.

Official military statements are identified as institutional accounts and do not, by themselves, establish independent verification of contested events. Legal proceedings are distinguished from final judicial findings, and differences between Israeli communities are discussed within their historical and political contexts.

The article aims to provide readers with a broader understanding of military service, civic responsibility, equality and the human consequences of national defense.

*Beyond the Lines — Independent Journalism*

*Source review: October 2026.*